Document Type : Original Article
Authors
1 PhD student, Department of Persian Language and Literature, Zah.c., Islamic Azad University, Zahedan Iran.
2 Associate Professor, Department of Persian Language and Literature, Zah.c., Islamic Azad University, Zahedan Iran.
Abstract
Abstract
From a structuralist perspective, character in narrative transcends its conventional role as a mere fictional element, emerging instead as an active agent in the intricate processes of meaning-making and narrative organization. Within this theoretical framework, the concept of character is intrinsically linked to narrative roles and functions, thus elevating it beyond a static or passive entity. As actants, characters play a decisive role in shaping both the progression of the plot and its internal coherence through their continuous interaction with other narrative components. Structuralist theorists, by concentrating on the relational dynamics among these actants, endeavor to render the internal mechanisms of narrative amenable to analysis, treating narrative language as a structured system intricately connected to events, actions, and role-based functions. This study, anchored in Ferdinand de Saussure’s linguistic distinction between langue and parole, commences with a concise overview of Vladimir Propp’s narratology before subsequently examining Algirdas Julien Greimas’s actantial model as a structural-linguistic framework for comprehending narrative organization. The findings demonstrate that narrative discourse, akin to linguistic speech, exhibits a dual structure: a surface level comprising a sequence of observable narrative events, and a deep level that underpins the semantic and functional logic governing character actions. From Greimas’s perspective, this deep structure is systematically organized along three binary axes: Sender/Receiver, Object/Subject, and Helper/Opponent. The systematic and dynamic interaction among these axes not only governs the functional dynamics of the narrative but also crucially determines its semantic trajectory and communicative orientation.
Introduction
The structuralist approach has emerged as a fundamental framework within literary criticism, proving particularly efficacious for analyzing prose fiction, especially novels. Algirdas Julien Greimas’s actantial role theory, a cornerstone of this approach, provides a systematic model for elucidating narrative mechanisms. Significantly influenced by Vladimir Propp’s morphology of the folktale and Ferdinand de Saussure’s groundbreaking linguistics, Greimas redefined characters not merely as individuals but as actants—active agents fundamental to the story’s unfolding. These actants are instrumental in generating both the surface structures (i.e., sequences of events) and the deep structures (i.e., underlying meaning) inherent in narrative discourse. Greimas’s model systematically organizes these actantial roles along three fundamental axes: desire, communication, and power. Within this framework, helpers facilitate the protagonist’s pursuit of a desired object, while opponents actively create obstacles, with both forces critically shaping the overall narrative structure.
Greimas, moreover, conceptually likens narrative to language, positing that it possesses its own internal grammar and a rule-governed system. Prominent structuralists such as Roland Barthes and Jonathan Culler further extend this perspective, treating narrative as a semiotic system characterized by analyzable rules. Consequently, narratives are understood as two-layered constructs: a discernible surface chronology of events and a profound deep semantic structure. A central question arising from this theoretical stance is precisely how characters transition from passive entities into dynamic, active agents, and how this transformation profoundly influences the structural analysis of any given narrative.
Statement of the Problem
In modern narratology, particularly within the structuralist tradition, narrative is conceptualized as a layered construct comprising a surface structure of observable events and a deep structure where meaning is generated. Greimas’s actantial theory provides a robust framework that seamlessly integrates structuralist linguistics with semantic analysis, thereby elucidating the operational mechanisms of narrative elements. Within this model, characters are not construed as passive figures; rather, they function as active agents assuming specific actantial roles such as subject, object, helper, opponent, sender, or receiver. Crucially, these roles are dynamic and are continually shaped by the evolving narrative context.
A pivotal research question, therefore, concerns the process by which characters transition from passivity to agency, and the consequent impact of this transformation on the structural interpretation of a narrative. Comprehending this intricate process necessitates a thorough examination of both surface and deep narrative levels. Surface actions frequently convey profounder meanings, which are often revealed through the intricate interplay of actantial roles. Greimas’s model effectively clarifies the functional and relational positions that characters occupy within the plot’s architecture. These intricate, role-based relationships collectively establish the semantic frameworks that propel the narrative’s dynamism. This study aims to apply Greimas's model to prose fiction, with the ultimate goal of developing a systematic methodology for analyzing narrative layers and uncovering the intricate links among meaning, structure, and action.
Background of the Research
The structuralist tradition in literary criticism has a long-standing history of scrutinizing narrative structures and character analysis. The foundational work in this area emerged in the early twentieth century with Ferdinand de Saussure’s seminal distinction between langue (language as a system) and parole (language as actual speech), which provided the essential conceptual groundwork for differentiating deep and surface structures in narratology. Building upon this, Vladimir Propp’s Morphology of the Folktale (1928) systematically identified recurring narrative functions and archetypal character roles, such as the hero, villain, and helper. Greimas significantly expanded upon Propp’s contributions by replacing these personal roles with the more abstract and functional concept of the actant. Consequently, his model defines characters not by their individual psychological traits but by their semantic and functional interactions within the narrative’s overarching structure.
Within this structuralist paradigm, narratives are understood to emerge from actants interacting along three primary structural axes: desire, power, and communication. The inherent structural oppositions along these axes fundamentally drive narrative progression. While structuralist and semiotic scholars have developed these intricate theories extensively, their direct and systematic application to novel analysis remains remarkably underexplored. Specifically, the crucial link between deep narrative structures and the complex semantic relationships among characters has received notably limited scholarly attention.
Methodology
This study employs a descriptive-analytical approach firmly grounded in the principles of structuralism, with its theoretical framework meticulously shaped by Greimas’s actantial role model. The requisite research data will be systematically gathered through extensive library research and a close textual reading (ultimately culminating in the analysis of a selected Sacred Defense novel). The subsequent analysis will be conducted by rigorously distinguishing between the two fundamental levels of narrative structure: the surface structure and the deep structure.
In the initial stage, the chronological sequence of events will be identified as the surface structure, while the latent underlying meanings will be recognized as the deep structure. Subsequently, both primary and secondary actants within the selected text will be identified in strict accordance with the six fundamental roles delineated in Greimas’s model—Subject, Object, Sender, Receiver, Helper, and Opponent. Their respective positions and functions within the narrative’s progression will then be precisely determined. The analysis will further proceed to examine the transformations and dynamic interplay of these roles throughout the story, investigating their complex interactions through the application of binary oppositions and intricate semantic relations. Crucially, this examination extends beyond human characters; symbolic elements, abstract concepts, and even inanimate objects will also be considered as actants, falling under the broader category of “beyond character.” Finally, the overarching actantial model of the narrative will be systematically mapped and elucidated based on the analytical findings, with the explicit aim of revealing the intricate relationships among actants, their objectives, the obstacles encountered, and the various aiding or opposing forces at play.
Discussion and Analysis
Algirdas Julien Greimas stands as a prominent post-Saussurean theorist who meticulously developed a structured and highly innovative semantic model. His seminal work, Structural Semantics (1966), not only articulates his theoretical contributions but also applies them to an analysis of the fictional world of Georges Bernanos. While the creation of a comprehensive comparative model for novel and narrative analysis remains inherently challenging, pioneering structuralists such as Propp and Greimas laid crucial groundwork through their initial efforts.
Semantics is recognized as a pivotal linguistic domain for systematically applying descriptive methods to literary language. Although semantic theory may not be exhaustive, it undeniably furnishes essential foundational principles for literary theory and criticism. Consequently, the development of a coherent model for both linguistics and literary criticism, particularly concerning novels, is heavily reliant upon semantic perspectives. Greimas specifically addresses the intricate analysis of sentence meaning and their sequential arrangement through mental structuring processes. He famously proposes a four-part semiotic square, which ingeniously links each term with its direct opposite and its contradiction (e.g., black, white, non-black, and non-white). This powerful framework facilitates a simple yet coherent representation of meaning within texts. Indeed, meaning is inherently relational, fundamentally dependent on oppositions and contradictions. The semiotic square’s application varies according to different types of textual readings, encompassing both paradigmatic and syntagmatic approaches, and it serves as a foundational analytical tool for narrative recognition and interpretation. Following Saussure, Greimas convincingly demonstrates that the complexity of meaning fundamentally arises from these oppositional relationships. Every concept, he argues, inherently presupposes its opposite, just as life is understood in relation to death, and movement in relation to stillness. Thus, Greimas’s model offers a systematic and rigorous methodology for analyzing and interpreting narrative semantics.
Conclusion
The endeavor of understanding and analyzing the surface and deep structures of the novel from a structural narratological perspective, particularly through the lens of Greimas’s actantial theory, constitutes a significant and highly pertinent area within contemporary literary studies. This sophisticated approach fundamentally redefines the concept of character, transforming it from a passive, static entity into an active and dynamic participant in the unfolding narrative events.
By conceptualizing events as the fundamental units of narrative structure—an analogy drawn from the relationship between speech and language—this perspective unveils a dual-layered system inherent in storytelling. This system comprises a surface structure, which meticulously traces the sequential progression of events, and a deep structure, which is constituted by the underlying patterns of actions and intricate interactions among characters. This dual structural understanding is directly analogous to Saussure’s seminal linguistic concepts of langue and parole, where langue represents the underlying system of language and parole signifies its actualized use. Accordingly, a comprehensive narrative analysis necessitates a rigorous examination of both the readily apparent flow of events and the concealed, underlying patterns of character agency and interaction.
Ultimately, this structuralist framework furnishes a coherent and systematic grammar of narrative language, thereby enabling a precise, nuanced, and meaningful analysis of the intricate structure and dynamic forces at play within prose fiction.
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