Ali Reza Shabanlu
Abstract
AbstractTo differentiate his narrative approach from that of earlier epic poets like Ferdowsi and Fakhr al-Din As'ad Gorgani, Nezami Ganjavi developed a distinctive poetic style, characterized by the extensive use of allusion, to enrich his language. Recognizing the need for moderation to maintain reader ...
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AbstractTo differentiate his narrative approach from that of earlier epic poets like Ferdowsi and Fakhr al-Din As'ad Gorgani, Nezami Ganjavi developed a distinctive poetic style, characterized by the extensive use of allusion, to enrich his language. Recognizing the need for moderation to maintain reader engagement, this study analyzes the allusions within Khosrow and Shirin through the lens of Daniel Berlyne's empirical aesthetics. The analysis concludes that Nezami strategically employed extensive allusion to render the well-known narrative of Khosrow and Shirin captivating for his audience. By foregrounding psychophysical properties (e.g., repetition of allusive terms, puns, and harmonious allusions) and collative properties (e.g., introducing novel allusions, transforming allusions into metaphors, employing exaggeration, and creating contradiction), Nezami aimed to offset the inherent lack of ecological properties in the story—a consequence of its pre-existing familiarity and common themes. This approach effectively optimized the story's arousal potential, ensuring reader enjoyment and preventing monotony. IntroductionIn composing Khosrow and Shirin, Nezami Ganjavi employed a repertoire of literary techniques, the exhaustive identification and detailed exposition of which present a considerable challenge. Nevertheless, a salient characteristic of his poetic language, and a deliberate choice to elevate its aesthetic value, is the extensive deployment of metonymy. This article undertakes an analysis of the metonymic structures within Khosrow and Shirin, drawing upon Daniel Berlyne’s empirical aesthetics approach. While Berlyne’s model was originally conceived for analyzing responses to visual art stimuli, this study aims to adapt his "variables effective in arousal" to the domain of poetry analysis, thereby investigating the aesthetic functions of metonymy in Nezami’s verse. Research MethodBerlyne's theory posits that the arousal potential of a stimulus, in conjunction with its surrounding context, activates a network of arousal systems, leading to widespread cortical arousal. This neural activation, as it propagates, is modulated by pleasure centers, which possess a lower excitation threshold. As the arousal potential of a stimulus intensifies, its aesthetic appeal generally increases. However, upon approaching the maximum excitation capacity of the reward centers, areas associated with unpleasantness become progressively stimulated, causing the pleasantness of the stimulus to diminish. This decline continues until a neutral state is reached, ultimately leading to a sensation of complete unpleasantness.In the context of poetic analysis, Berlyne's framework can be applied by considering the following properties:Psychophysical Properties: In poetry, these properties encompass elements such as meter, phonetic features, puns, and rhymes.Ecological Properties: These relate to the inherent value and significance of the poem's message and content.Collative Properties: This category includes:3.1. Novelty: This refers to formal and semantic innovations in structure and meter, as well as the introduction of new metaphors, similes, and metonymies.3.2. Complexity: A stimulus characterized by a greater number of components and elements, with irony and proverbs serving as illustrative examples.3.3. Incongruity: This involves either internal stimulus incongruity (e.g., paradox) or incongruity with the surrounding context (e.g., contrast).3.4. Surprisingness: This denotes the inconsistency of stimulus features with audience expectations, exemplified by exaggeration. Previous ResearchExisting scholarship has explored various linguistic facets of Nezami's work. Pournamdarian and Mousavi (2021), for instance, examined and introduced key linguistic aspects of Nezami’s poetic language in Makhzan al-Asrar. Moving to structural analysis, Zamani and Paymani (2022) investigated the structure of metaphors in Nezami’s Haft Peykar. Furthermore, Naseri and Azimi (2010) identified and presented folk metaphors within Nezami’s Layla and Majnun. Discussion and AnalysisTo underscore the “psychophysical properties of metonymy”, Nezami employs various techniques, including the repetition of the core metonymic element, the presentation of consecutive metonymies sharing a common core, and the strategic use of rhyme correspondences. He further fortifies metonymy through proverbs and other figures of speech, establishing it as a distinctive feature of his poetic style. While Nezami occasionally extends beyond strict moderation in his application of psychophysical properties—such as meter, phonetic elements, and verbal devices intrinsically linked to the metonymic core—he adeptly avoids outright excess.Concerning the “ecological properties” of his narrative, Nezami endeavors to link metonymies with spiritual literary devices pertaining to their core, thereby altering their domain of application and revitalizing meaning through the establishment of asymmetrical parallels. Given that Nezami's chosen narratives were widely known, precluding significant alterations to their plots, he meticulously cultivated his expressive style. This was achieved through the incorporation of exaggeration, the introduction of extraordinary events, and the deployment of both novel metonymies and familiar allegories. These literary devices, on one hand, frequently involve exaggeration, which naturally captures reader interest. On the other hand, the judicious use of proverbs and metonymies can render verses somewhat predictable, and this very predictability can serve as an engaging factor in the creative process, ultimately contributing to the work's aesthetic appeal and reader enjoyment.Within the framework of “collative properties”, Nezami actively pursues novelty by recontextualizing established metonymies and introducing original ones into his poetry. To foster complexity, he frequently embeds multiple metonymies sharing a common core within a single verse, transmutes metonymies into similes by reconfiguring their application domains, and juxtaposes several metonymies within a single line. Furthermore, he skillfully employs contrast to engender incongruity and integrates metonymies with exaggeration to evoke surprise. ConclusionIn summary, to ensure the renowned narrative of Khosrow and Shirin remained engaging for his audience, Nezami Ganjavi made extensive use of metonymy. By deliberately enhancing its psychophysical properties—through techniques such as the repetition of metonymic terms, puns, and harmonious metonymies—and its collative properties—manifested in the introduction of novel metonymies, the transformation of metonymies into similes, exaggeration, and contrast—Nezami effectively mitigated the limitations posed by the story's ecological properties. These limitations arose from the inherent familiarity and conventionality of the narrative's core meaning. Ultimately, this strategic employment of metonymy served to optimize the story's arousal potential, thereby captivating readers and preventing monotony.
Hamidreza Akbari; َAhmadreza Keykhafarzaneh; Mostafa Salari
Abstract
AbstractFrom a structuralist perspective, character in narrative transcends its conventional role as a mere fictional element, emerging instead as an active agent in the intricate processes of meaning-making and narrative organization. Within this theoretical framework, the concept of character is intrinsically ...
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AbstractFrom a structuralist perspective, character in narrative transcends its conventional role as a mere fictional element, emerging instead as an active agent in the intricate processes of meaning-making and narrative organization. Within this theoretical framework, the concept of character is intrinsically linked to narrative roles and functions, thus elevating it beyond a static or passive entity. As actants, characters play a decisive role in shaping both the progression of the plot and its internal coherence through their continuous interaction with other narrative components. Structuralist theorists, by concentrating on the relational dynamics among these actants, endeavor to render the internal mechanisms of narrative amenable to analysis, treating narrative language as a structured system intricately connected to events, actions, and role-based functions. This study, anchored in Ferdinand de Saussure’s linguistic distinction between langue and parole, commences with a concise overview of Vladimir Propp’s narratology before subsequently examining Algirdas Julien Greimas’s actantial model as a structural-linguistic framework for comprehending narrative organization. The findings demonstrate that narrative discourse, akin to linguistic speech, exhibits a dual structure: a surface level comprising a sequence of observable narrative events, and a deep level that underpins the semantic and functional logic governing character actions. From Greimas’s perspective, this deep structure is systematically organized along three binary axes: Sender/Receiver, Object/Subject, and Helper/Opponent. The systematic and dynamic interaction among these axes not only governs the functional dynamics of the narrative but also crucially determines its semantic trajectory and communicative orientation. IntroductionThe structuralist approach has emerged as a fundamental framework within literary criticism, proving particularly efficacious for analyzing prose fiction, especially novels. Algirdas Julien Greimas’s actantial role theory, a cornerstone of this approach, provides a systematic model for elucidating narrative mechanisms. Significantly influenced by Vladimir Propp’s morphology of the folktale and Ferdinand de Saussure’s groundbreaking linguistics, Greimas redefined characters not merely as individuals but as actants—active agents fundamental to the story’s unfolding. These actants are instrumental in generating both the surface structures (i.e., sequences of events) and the deep structures (i.e., underlying meaning) inherent in narrative discourse. Greimas’s model systematically organizes these actantial roles along three fundamental axes: desire, communication, and power. Within this framework, helpers facilitate the protagonist’s pursuit of a desired object, while opponents actively create obstacles, with both forces critically shaping the overall narrative structure.Greimas, moreover, conceptually likens narrative to language, positing that it possesses its own internal grammar and a rule-governed system. Prominent structuralists such as Roland Barthes and Jonathan Culler further extend this perspective, treating narrative as a semiotic system characterized by analyzable rules. Consequently, narratives are understood as two-layered constructs: a discernible surface chronology of events and a profound deep semantic structure. A central question arising from this theoretical stance is precisely how characters transition from passive entities into dynamic, active agents, and how this transformation profoundly influences the structural analysis of any given narrative. Statement of the ProblemIn modern narratology, particularly within the structuralist tradition, narrative is conceptualized as a layered construct comprising a surface structure of observable events and a deep structure where meaning is generated. Greimas’s actantial theory provides a robust framework that seamlessly integrates structuralist linguistics with semantic analysis, thereby elucidating the operational mechanisms of narrative elements. Within this model, characters are not construed as passive figures; rather, they function as active agents assuming specific actantial roles such as subject, object, helper, opponent, sender, or receiver. Crucially, these roles are dynamic and are continually shaped by the evolving narrative context.A pivotal research question, therefore, concerns the process by which characters transition from passivity to agency, and the consequent impact of this transformation on the structural interpretation of a narrative. Comprehending this intricate process necessitates a thorough examination of both surface and deep narrative levels. Surface actions frequently convey profounder meanings, which are often revealed through the intricate interplay of actantial roles. Greimas’s model effectively clarifies the functional and relational positions that characters occupy within the plot’s architecture. These intricate, role-based relationships collectively establish the semantic frameworks that propel the narrative’s dynamism. This study aims to apply Greimas's model to prose fiction, with the ultimate goal of developing a systematic methodology for analyzing narrative layers and uncovering the intricate links among meaning, structure, and action. Background of the ResearchThe structuralist tradition in literary criticism has a long-standing history of scrutinizing narrative structures and character analysis. The foundational work in this area emerged in the early twentieth century with Ferdinand de Saussure’s seminal distinction between langue (language as a system) and parole (language as actual speech), which provided the essential conceptual groundwork for differentiating deep and surface structures in narratology. Building upon this, Vladimir Propp’s Morphology of the Folktale (1928) systematically identified recurring narrative functions and archetypal character roles, such as the hero, villain, and helper. Greimas significantly expanded upon Propp’s contributions by replacing these personal roles with the more abstract and functional concept of the actant. Consequently, his model defines characters not by their individual psychological traits but by their semantic and functional interactions within the narrative’s overarching structure.Within this structuralist paradigm, narratives are understood to emerge from actants interacting along three primary structural axes: desire, power, and communication. The inherent structural oppositions along these axes fundamentally drive narrative progression. While structuralist and semiotic scholars have developed these intricate theories extensively, their direct and systematic application to novel analysis remains remarkably underexplored. Specifically, the crucial link between deep narrative structures and the complex semantic relationships among characters has received notably limited scholarly attention. MethodologyThis study employs a descriptive-analytical approach firmly grounded in the principles of structuralism, with its theoretical framework meticulously shaped by Greimas’s actantial role model. The requisite research data will be systematically gathered through extensive library research and a close textual reading (ultimately culminating in the analysis of a selected Sacred Defense novel). The subsequent analysis will be conducted by rigorously distinguishing between the two fundamental levels of narrative structure: the surface structure and the deep structure.In the initial stage, the chronological sequence of events will be identified as the surface structure, while the latent underlying meanings will be recognized as the deep structure. Subsequently, both primary and secondary actants within the selected text will be identified in strict accordance with the six fundamental roles delineated in Greimas’s model—Subject, Object, Sender, Receiver, Helper, and Opponent. Their respective positions and functions within the narrative’s progression will then be precisely determined. The analysis will further proceed to examine the transformations and dynamic interplay of these roles throughout the story, investigating their complex interactions through the application of binary oppositions and intricate semantic relations. Crucially, this examination extends beyond human characters; symbolic elements, abstract concepts, and even inanimate objects will also be considered as actants, falling under the broader category of “beyond character.” Finally, the overarching actantial model of the narrative will be systematically mapped and elucidated based on the analytical findings, with the explicit aim of revealing the intricate relationships among actants, their objectives, the obstacles encountered, and the various aiding or opposing forces at play. Discussion and AnalysisAlgirdas Julien Greimas stands as a prominent post-Saussurean theorist who meticulously developed a structured and highly innovative semantic model. His seminal work, Structural Semantics (1966), not only articulates his theoretical contributions but also applies them to an analysis of the fictional world of Georges Bernanos. While the creation of a comprehensive comparative model for novel and narrative analysis remains inherently challenging, pioneering structuralists such as Propp and Greimas laid crucial groundwork through their initial efforts.Semantics is recognized as a pivotal linguistic domain for systematically applying descriptive methods to literary language. Although semantic theory may not be exhaustive, it undeniably furnishes essential foundational principles for literary theory and criticism. Consequently, the development of a coherent model for both linguistics and literary criticism, particularly concerning novels, is heavily reliant upon semantic perspectives. Greimas specifically addresses the intricate analysis of sentence meaning and their sequential arrangement through mental structuring processes. He famously proposes a four-part semiotic square, which ingeniously links each term with its direct opposite and its contradiction (e.g., black, white, non-black, and non-white). This powerful framework facilitates a simple yet coherent representation of meaning within texts. Indeed, meaning is inherently relational, fundamentally dependent on oppositions and contradictions. The semiotic square’s application varies according to different types of textual readings, encompassing both paradigmatic and syntagmatic approaches, and it serves as a foundational analytical tool for narrative recognition and interpretation. Following Saussure, Greimas convincingly demonstrates that the complexity of meaning fundamentally arises from these oppositional relationships. Every concept, he argues, inherently presupposes its opposite, just as life is understood in relation to death, and movement in relation to stillness. Thus, Greimas’s model offers a systematic and rigorous methodology for analyzing and interpreting narrative semantics. ConclusionThe endeavor of understanding and analyzing the surface and deep structures of the novel from a structural narratological perspective, particularly through the lens of Greimas’s actantial theory, constitutes a significant and highly pertinent area within contemporary literary studies. This sophisticated approach fundamentally redefines the concept of character, transforming it from a passive, static entity into an active and dynamic participant in the unfolding narrative events.By conceptualizing events as the fundamental units of narrative structure—an analogy drawn from the relationship between speech and language—this perspective unveils a dual-layered system inherent in storytelling. This system comprises a surface structure, which meticulously traces the sequential progression of events, and a deep structure, which is constituted by the underlying patterns of actions and intricate interactions among characters. This dual structural understanding is directly analogous to Saussure’s seminal linguistic concepts of langue and parole, where langue represents the underlying system of language and parole signifies its actualized use. Accordingly, a comprehensive narrative analysis necessitates a rigorous examination of both the readily apparent flow of events and the concealed, underlying patterns of character agency and interaction.Ultimately, this structuralist framework furnishes a coherent and systematic grammar of narrative language, thereby enabling a precise, nuanced, and meaningful analysis of the intricate structure and dynamic forces at play within prose fiction.
Kourosh kamali sarvestani; Farah Niazkar
Abstract
AbstractThis study analyzes the aesthetic techniques and distinctive linguistic features present in Saadi’s ghazals. Characterized as the language of love, Saadi’s ghazals portray an intrinsic connection between the lover and the beloved, where words operate simultaneously on descriptive ...
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AbstractThis study analyzes the aesthetic techniques and distinctive linguistic features present in Saadi’s ghazals. Characterized as the language of love, Saadi’s ghazals portray an intrinsic connection between the lover and the beloved, where words operate simultaneously on descriptive and symbolic levels, imbued with profound emotional resonance. Saadi’s poetic language judiciously employs metaphor, allegory, ambiguity, and allusion, thereby facilitating the communication of complex abstract and emotional concepts to his audience. Utilizing a descriptive-analytical methodology rooted in semiotic theory, this research investigates Saadi’s linguistic artistry through four primary analytical axes: figurative and allusive language, the language of sensation and the heart, ambiguity and polysemy, and ellipses in linguistic expression. The findings demonstrate that Saadi effectively renders intellectual and emotional concepts tangible through metaphor and allegory, concurrently utilizing rhetorical constriction and emphasis to underscore meaning. The inherent ambiguity and multiple connotations within his verse encourage diverse interpretations and actively engage the reader’s intellect. Furthermore, "the language of sensation and the heart" encapsulates both external perceptions and internal human experiences, while linguistic omissions contribute significantly to the aesthetic and artistic depth of his poetry. This analysis concludes that Saadi, through a masterful synthesis of descriptive tradition and creative innovation, constructs an intricate network of signs and semantic relationships, demanding close attention to both linguistic nuances and cultural context. Consequently, Saadi’s ghazals not only articulate universal human thoughts and feelings but also exemplify the poet’s exceptional artistic and linguistic prowess in generating profound meaning and captivating his audience. IntroductionA comprehensive understanding of the latent meanings embedded within Saadi’s ghazals necessitates a thorough familiarity with what can be termed "Saadi’s language." This distinctive language is characterized by its simultaneous simplicity and profound depth, encompassing layers of concealed meaning. It represents a masterful synthesis of established descriptive traditions and the poet’s singular creative ingenuity. Consequently, discerning Saadi’s unique linguistic features, markers, and stylistic devices, alongside the symbolic codes pervading his ghazals, is paramount for grasping the full semantic breadth of his oeuvre. In Saadi’s poetry, language transcends its function as a mere vehicle for expression; it operates as an artistic and philosophical instrument, introducing the reader to intricate and multifaceted concepts. Therefore, to achieve a deeper comprehension of his ghazals, a detailed elucidation of his linguistic strategies is indispensable. Literature ReviewExisting scholarship on Saadi’s linguistic artistry, while valuable, has primarily explored different avenues. For instance, studies such as Fotouhi’s The Magic of Syntax in Saadi’s Ghazals, Esmaeilzadeh’s Allegory: The Power of Saadi’s Language and the Language of Power, and Eshani’s A Stylistic Analysis of Verbs in Saadi’s Didactic Ghazals predominantly focus on comparative analyses of Saadi’s language with that of other poets, or they examine his works outside the ghazal genre. Consequently, these prior investigations, despite their merits, do not specifically address the central focus of the present research: a dedicated analysis of the aesthetic and linguistic features of Saadi’s ghazals themselves. Research Methodology and Theoretical FrameworkThis study adopts a descriptive-analytical approach, meticulously examining both the traditional and innovative aspects inherent in Saadi’s distinctive linguistic style. The analytical framework is predicated upon three core linguistic dimensions: "indicative and allegorical language," "the language of perception (Hass)," and "the language of the heart (Del)." Particular emphasis is placed on the estrangement techniques skillfully employed by Saadi. The overarching objective is to scrutinize how the poet strategically utilizes these linguistic devices to convey intricate concepts and achieve a profound artistic impact. Discussion and AnalysisSaadi, through his exceptional linguistic and intellectual ingenuity, masterfully harnessed the expressive potential of poetic language to articulate abstract and intricate ideas. His verse, deceptively simple yet profoundly deep, strategically employs metaphors, allegories, allusions, and semiotic signs to render abstract concepts tangible and readily comprehensible.4.1. Indicative and Allegorical LanguageSaadi predominantly utilizes two primary modes of expression: direct and indirect. Direct expression conveys abstract concepts through precise, concrete vocabulary. Conversely, indirect expression, primarily achieved via allegories and allusions, skillfully guides the reader’s intellect toward a broader comprehension of nuanced and non-literal concepts. This dual approach fosters audience engagement with tangible, multifaceted imagery, thereby facilitating diverse interpretations.4.1.1. Techniques in Indicative LanguageA. Utilization of Symbols, Allegories, and Paradoxes: Saadi’s strategic deployment of symbols, allegories, and paradoxes significantly enhances the coherence and thematic depth of his poetry. A prime example is the portrayal of a lover experiencing joy despite being in captivity, showcasing inherent tension.B. Flexibility and Fluidity of Meaning: Saadi deliberately cultivates flexibility and fluidity of meaning by transcending conventional lexical boundaries and introducing ambiguity. This technique empowers the poet to imbue his verse with profound personal interpretations, vividly observed in his multifaceted depictions of archetypes such as the rogue, the ascetic, the pious, and the discerning observer.4.2. Emphasis through Restriction (Hesar and Qasr)Saadi effectively employs the rhetorical devices of restriction and limitation (hesar and qasr) to underscore pivotal statements and generate reader surprise. This strategic application significantly augments the emphasis and persuasive impact of his words.4.3. Polysemy and EllipsisThe deliberate integration of polysemous words, coupled with both verbal and semantic omissions, empowers readers to uncover novel meanings, thereby rendering the poetic experience uniquely personal and enriching.4.4. The Language of Perception (Hass) and The Language of the Heart (Del)"The language of perception (Hass)" is fundamentally anchored in rationality and the observable world, and it is largely shaped by conventional linguistic agreements. In contrast, "the language of the heart" or "language of states (Zaban-e Hal)" emanates from the poet’s profound inner emotions. It conveys meaning through an array of natural, human, or even metaphysical elements, including reason, love, eyes, sorrow, breeze, water, wind, soil, fire, and others. This particular linguistic register is typically invoked when direct expression is deemed either unsuitable or insufficient to capture the desired emotional or conceptual depth. ConclusionIn conclusion, Saadi’s poetry is characterized by its sophisticated employment of diverse linguistic techniques—including syntactic ellipsis, metaphor, polysemous allusions, and rhetorical limitation—all meticulously orchestrated to convey profound meaning, amplify artistic impact, and achieve unparalleled lexical beauty. This strategic deployment firmly establishes his unique and preeminent position within Persian poetic tradition. His adept use of rhetorical restriction and limitation significantly fortifies both emphasis and overall artistic effect, a practice that resonates powerfully from both an aesthetic standpoint and the perspectives of applied semantics and rhetoric. For tangible and material concepts, Saadi typically favors direct expression. However, when confronting abstract notions, he skillfully conveys meaning through perceptible and allegorical language, thereby fostering mental proximity and facilitating comprehension. This methodology enables readers to apprehend extensive, nuanced, and non-literal meanings through vivid, tangible images that frequently underscore causal relationships. Ultimately, these intricate techniques collectively contribute to the cohesion, fluidity, and profound ambiguity of his poetic discourse, thereby allowing for multiple layers of interpretation and immeasurably enriching the aesthetic and intellectual experience of his ghazals.
toran safarpoor; shahrzad niazi; atamohammad radmanesh
Abstract
AbstractNizami Ganjavi's Makhzan-ul-Asrar (The Treasury of Secrets) stands as a foundational work in educational literature, widely admired and frequently imitated by subsequent poets. An examination of the naẓīreh compositions (parallels) inspired by this masnavi, analyzed ...
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AbstractNizami Ganjavi's Makhzan-ul-Asrar (The Treasury of Secrets) stands as a foundational work in educational literature, widely admired and frequently imitated by subsequent poets. An examination of the naẓīreh compositions (parallels) inspired by this masnavi, analyzed through structural and thematic perspectives, reveals the extent of Nizami's influence on these poets and highlights the distinctive stylistic characteristics of his original work. The present study investigates eight such naẓīrehs of Makhzan-ul-Asrar, composed between the 7th and 10th centuries AH. These include "Mutala-ul-Anwar," "Safana-mah," "Rawza-ul-Anwar," "Al-Mushahid," "Mazhar-ul-Athar," "Naqsh-ul-Badi'," "Mazhar-ul-Asrar," and "Tahfa-ul-Ahrar" by Abdur Rahman Jami.The primary objective of this study is to scrutinize the literary traditions evident in these parallel poems and to ascertain the degree of their structural and thematic (stylistic and rhetorical) influence by Makhzan-ul-Asrar. A secondary aim is to evaluate the extent to which the imitators employed literary traditions in their engagement with Nizami's masnavi and to identify any structural or thematic innovations they introduced. The findings demonstrate that the relationship between Makhzan-ul-Asrar and its imitators is fundamentally imitative. The later works function as a retelling and re-creation of previously articulated meanings, presented within a form and context that directly emulates Makhzan-ul-Asrar. This imitation often lacks distinctive individual characteristics from the imitator that would significantly differentiate their work from the original model. This imitative relationship encompasses aspects of imitation, association, integration, and dependence. Furthermore, none of the imitators achieved the thematic coherence and intellectual depth characteristic of Nizami's discourse and thought, often prioritizing the external appearance and superficial structure of Makhzan-ul-Asrar. Nizami masterfully employs all rhetorical devices to develop themes and to adorn language and form, portraying even the simplest meanings and topics with an artistry unparalleled by his imitators. IntroductionThis study undertakes an examination of eight naẓīreh compositions, or imitations, of Nizami's Makhzan-ul-Asrar ("The Treasure of Secrets"), which were created between the 7th and 10th centuries AH. These selected works include "Matla'-ol-Anwar," "Safanameh," "Rowzat-ol-Anwar," "Al-Mashahid," "Mazhar-ol-Asar," "Naqsh-e Badie'," "Mazhar-ol-Asrar," and "Tohfat-ol-Ahrar." The primary objective of this research is to investigate the literary traditions evident in these parallel poems and to ascertain the extent of their structural and thematic (stylistic and rhetorical) influence by Nizami's original work. A further aim is to assess the imitators' application of these literary traditions and to identify any structural or thematic innovations they may have introduced.The analysis reveals that the relationship between Makhzan-ul-Asrar and its imitations is fundamentally one of imitation. The subsequent works predominantly function as a re-narration and re-creation of pre-existing meanings, adhering closely to a form and context that directly emulates Nizami's masterpiece. Consequently, this imitation often lacks individual characteristics of the imitator that would significantly distinguish it from the model work. This intricate relationship encompasses aspects of direct imitation, association, synthesis of elements, and literary dependence. Moreover, the findings indicate that none of the imitators successfully matched the intellectual depth and thematic coherence present in Nizami's discourse and thought, often concentrating more on the external appearance and structural elements of Makhzan-ul-Asrar. Nizami, in contrast, skillfully employs all rhetorical devices primarily for thematic development and to enrich the linguistic form of his poetry, portraying even the most straightforward meanings with an artistry that remains unparalleled by his imitators. Materials and MethodsThis research was executed using a descriptive-analytical methodology, primarily drawing upon extensive library resources. Initially, the study defines and describes key concepts, including stylistics, rhetoric, overarching themes, and the nature of literary imitation (naẓīreh). Subsequently, it provides a concise introduction to the eight chosen imitations of Makhzan-ul-Asrar, composed between the 7th and 10th centuries AH. This introduction highlights the prominent stylistic, rhetorical, and thematic features of each individual work.Following this introductory phase, a comprehensive comparative analysis of these works with Nizami's Makhzan-ul-Asrar is undertaken, noting their specific differences and similarities. By meticulously examining the application of style, rhetoric, and themes within the imitations, the distinctive strengths and weaknesses of each work are elucidated. Furthermore, through the comparative analysis of these masnavis against Nizami's original, the stylistic, rhetorical, and thematic values inherent in the imitations are precisely determined. This study concurrently demonstrates the profound extent of Nizami's enduring influence on the literary output of subsequent poets. Discussion and AnalysisNizami primarily employs all rhetorical devices for thematic creation and to adorn the language and form of his poetry. His objective is to enhance the aesthetic quality of his words and to forge a novel, sophisticated poetic style. Nizami portrays even the most straightforward meanings and subjects with such innovative artistry that no comparable achievement can be found among his imitators. In contrast, within the imitations, rhetorical techniques are predominantly utilized for the purpose of explaining and emphasizing pre-existing meaning. In these later works, literary devices primarily serve to clarify the ideas articulated by the poet and to present them in a slightly modified form.Among the naẓīreh compositions, "Al-Mashahid" by Shah Da'i, alongside "Gowhar-e Fard" and "Mazhar-ol-Asrar" by Abdi Beyg Shirazi, exhibit notable structural and stylistic similarities. Specifically, in "Mazhar-ol-Asrar," there is a more discernible application of both verbal and spiritual figures of speech. The poet endeavors to maintain an equal balance between form and meaning. However, this balance risks disruption if the focus shifts excessively towards form, thereby diminishing the importance of the underlying meaning. In "Tohfat-ol-Ahrar," the deployment of these elements is less prominent; nevertheless, the presence of epic elements and terminology associated with the profession of secretaryship is particularly noteworthy. ConclusionThe structural deployment of similes, metaphors, and allegories within these poems significantly influenced the respective poetic languages of their authors. The elevated frequency of these rhetorical devices in Nizami's work contributes to a poetic language that is both more elusive and more imaginative. Conversely, the language of his imitators tends to be simpler and clearer, attributable to a lower frequency of such sophisticated devices. This distinction underscores that Nizami, even when employing explicit and seemingly simple similes, consistently aimed to render his language more imaginative and, consequently, more elusive and complex. This artistic intention is notably absent in his imitators, whose poetic language is, by comparison, more readily understandable than Nizami's.One contributing factor to the observed differences in the structure of similes and metaphors between Makhzan-ul-Asrar and its naẓīreh compositions is the fact that the imitators were direct followers of Nizami's established style. Concurrently, the broader stylistic differences among these poets must also be taken into account. Nizami, and the Azerbaijani style in general, exhibits a pronounced inclination towards linguistic complexity and the inherent elusiveness of poetic imagery. However, while poets such as Amir Khosrow, Jami, and Khajoo engaged in imitation, their stylistic approaches did not achieve the same degree of complexity or elusiveness. Furthermore, disparities in the structure of similes, metaphors, and allegories among these poets are also linked to their distinct worldviews, their unique philosophical attitudes toward existence, and the varying geographical regions in which they resided.
maryam bakhtiari
Abstract
Abstract
Michael Halliday's theory of cohesion identifies two primary types: lexical and grammatical. Among grammatical cohesive devices, conjunctions merit particular examination due to their pivotal role in connecting clauses and explicitly manifesting textual cohesion. Halliday categorizes conjunctions ...
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Abstract
Michael Halliday's theory of cohesion identifies two primary types: lexical and grammatical. Among grammatical cohesive devices, conjunctions merit particular examination due to their pivotal role in connecting clauses and explicitly manifesting textual cohesion. Halliday categorizes conjunctions into four distinct types: additive, adversative, causal, and temporal. In contemporary Persian poetry—especially that composed in a stepped-line format—conjunctions occasionally occupy an entire line independently, thereby gaining significant prominence between stanzas. They can either generate an abrupt opening at a poem's commencement or be proliferated throughout the verse to defamiliarize and emphasize intended meanings. This study focuses on the role of conjunctions in Qiysar Aminpour’s poetry, specifically examining their pervasive use across clauses and stanzas. The findings indicate that Aminpour, by skillfully employing his grammatical expertise, strategically deployed conjunctions to mark and accentuate his intended messages, thus achieving both grammatical-semantic and rhetorical significance. Furthermore, an analysis of the frequency distribution of conjunction types across his poetry collections reveals a discernible schematic pattern, reflecting the evolution of the poet’s discourse over different periods. This strategic deployment of conjunctions contributes significantly to the innovative structure evident in Aminpour's poetic language and discourse.
Introduction
The inherent complexity of social, political, and cultural phenomena often results in hidden and latent meanings, which are invariably reflected in language, particularly within discourse. Consequently, the study and analysis of discourse are considered highly significant within linguistics. One dimension of discourse analysis involves examining text formation and the interconnections between its components, which functional linguists refer to as “cohesion factors”. This term was initially introduced by Michael Halliday, a prominent functionalist theorist, who posited its operation at both grammatical and lexical levels. Literary works, as complex linguistic constructs, integrate the poet's individual ideologies and their engagement with societal contexts; thus, language serves as a window into the poet's intellectual landscape. Research into cohesion factors, especially conjunctions, is therefore crucial for understanding the links between sentences and clauses and for accurately grasping intended meaning. Qiysar Aminpour’s poetry stands as a notable body of work where conjunctions are extensively and purposefully employed.
Background of the Research
Numerous studies have explored the poetry of Qiysar Aminpour. For instance, Sattari and Haghighi (2016), in their article “Evaluation techniques of creating coherence in poems of Kaiser Aminpour relying on the theory of Halliday’s linguistics”, primarily provided poetic examples and evidence for each type of grammatical and lexical cohesion without offering substantial analysis. Specifically, the examples of conjunctions were merely cited as instances, lacking any detailed examination. Similarly, Salehi (1390/2011), in her book Tahlil-i Guftmani-i Asar-i Qiysar Aminpour [Discourse Analysis of Qiysar Aminpour’s Works], analyzed Aminpour’s poems without specifically addressing the factors of cohesion. Abolghasemi and Aliehpour (1389/2010), in their article “Investigating the manifestations of thought in Qeysar Aminpour’s poetry”, focused on analyzing and exploring the manifestations of thought and contemplation in Aminpour’s poems. Despite existing scholarship, a dedicated investigation into conjunctions as a cohesive factor and their influence on Aminpour’s poetic discourse remains a lacuna in the current research landscape.
Methodology
This research employs a descriptive-analytical approach, drawing upon Michael Halliday’s theory of textual cohesion. Data for this study were systematically gathered from four of Aminpour’s poetry collections: Tanaffus-i Ṣubh [The Breath of Dawn], Āyīnaha-yi Nāgahān [Ayinehā-ye Nāgahān], Gulhā hami Āftābgardānand [All the Flowers Are Sunflowers], Dastūr-i Zabān-i ‘ishq [The Grammar of Love]. Upon completion of the study, the frequency of conjunctions—categorized into the four Hallidayan groups (additive, adversative, causal, and temporal)—has been analyzed within each poetry collection and subsequently depicted in pie charts for clear visualization.
Discussion
The research findings demonstrate that Qiysar Aminpour meticulously employed conjunctions, leveraging his grammatical expertise and scholarly acumen to underscore and amplify his intended messages, a phenomenon observable at both grammatical-semantic and rhetorical levels. Furthermore, the frequency of different conjunction types across his poetry collections demonstrates a defined pattern in the poet’s discourse over various periods. This deliberate attention to the usage of conjunctions has consequently imparted a novel character to the poet’s language and discourse. Beyond their cohesive functions in the grammatical domain, the rhetorical functions of conjunctions and their impact on tone are also noteworthy. The strategic rhetorical repetition of conjunctions within his verse generates a range of effects, including sequential progression, striking contrasts, inherent paradoxes, heightened emphasis, or sudden inaugurations, which collectively contribute to establishing diverse tonal registers such as protest, admiration, surprise, or assertive declaration. These sudden beginnings, facilitated by conjunctions, serve to accentuate the meanings and concepts the poet intends. Such openings can be considered a distinctive stylistic device in Qiysar Aminpour’s discourse. Moreover, the frequency of various conjunction types differs across Aminpour’s poetry collections, corresponding to distinct social periods. This observation suggests that conjunctions are a determinant component of discourse, effectively highlighting intended concepts.
Conclusion
This study has demonstrated that Qiysar Aminpour’s poetry represents a compelling case for the deliberate and masterful application of conjunctions, transcending their basic grammatical function. Our analysis reveals that Aminpour, leveraging his profound grammatical understanding, strategically employed conjunctions to accentuate his intended meanings, thereby achieving significant grammatical-semantic and rhetorical effects. The investigation into the frequency distribution of various conjunction types further illuminated a discernible schematic pattern within his poetic discourse, evolving consistently across different periods and poetry collections.
Beyond their established role in textual cohesion, this research highlights the potent rhetorical functions of conjunctions in Aminpour’s work. Their repetitive deployment creates diverse textual effects, including sequences, contrasts, paradoxes, and moments of abrupt inception, which collectively establish nuanced tones such as protest, admiration, and assertion. These abrupt openings orchestrated by conjunctions emerge as a distinctive stylistic hallmark of Aminpour’s poetic discourse, effectively amplifying his conceptual messages. The observed variation in conjunction usage across different social periods also underscores their determinative role in shaping his discourse.
Ayoob Badavam; Nusratullah sadeqloo
Abstract
AbstractWords within any specific historical period often possess nuanced semantic components that standard dictionaries frequently overlook. This research aims to identify and meticulously analyze these semantic components for the term 'Modārā' (مدارا) as it appears in Nasrullah Monshi's Bahramshahi ...
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AbstractWords within any specific historical period often possess nuanced semantic components that standard dictionaries frequently overlook. This research aims to identify and meticulously analyze these semantic components for the term 'Modārā' (مدارا) as it appears in Nasrullah Monshi's Bahramshahi translation of Kalila wa Dimna, employing the method of componential analysis. Initially, lexical definitions from reputable dictionaries were examined. Subsequently, the usage of 'Modārā' within various syntagmatic chains throughout the original text was meticulously analyzed to extract its constituent semantic components. The findings reveal that 'Modārā' in Kalila wa Dimna transcends mere tolerance or kindness; rather, it is depicted as a complex, purposeful, and multifaceted strategy for achieving objectives, managing interpersonal interactions, and ensuring survival across diverse circumstances. Specific semantic components, consistently recurring across the various textual applications of this word, include [+Apparent Behavior], [+Kind], [+Instrumental], [+Expedient], [+Cunning], [+Flexible], and [-Sincere]. This analysis underscores the critical necessity of considering the intricate semantic nuances of words in classical texts and highlights the inherent limitations of general dictionaries in fully representing such subtleties. IntroductionNasrullah Monshi's Bahramshahi translation of Kalila wa Dimna stands as a recognized masterpiece of Persian prose, celebrated for its rich repository of practical wisdom, ethical counsel, and intricate linguistic subtleties. A profound understanding of this layered work necessitates a precise analysis of its key vocabulary, as these terms often carry significant semantic and cultural weight. Among such terms, the word ‘مدارا’ (Modārā) is a frequently employed, multifaceted expression that plays a pivotal role across numerous contexts within the book. Given its inherent conceptual complexity and its historical-political significance, relying solely on the general definitions provided by standard dictionaries proves insufficient for grasping its precise meaning within the distinctive worldview presented in Kalila wa Dimna. Dictionaries, by their very nature, frequently fall short of fully representing the nuanced semantics of words, particularly as they function within classical texts. Consequently, this research employs rigorous linguistic approaches, specifically "synchronic semantics" and the method of "componential analysis," to meticulously explore the hidden dimensions and constituent semantic components of 'Modārā' within this ancient text. The primary objective is to identify the word's consistent and recurring semantic components and, based on its textual applications, to construct a comprehensive componential definition. This endeavor ultimately aims to highlight the disparity between the word's meaning in Kalila wa Dimna and its portrayal in conventional lexicographical definitions. Literature ReviewComponential analysis, a method deeply rooted in structural semantics, has been extensively applied in diverse linguistic studies. Notably, its utility has been demonstrated in the analysis of significant religious texts in Arabic, such as the Qur'an and Nahj al-Balagha. In the realm of Persian linguistics, one relevant study has conducted a componential analysis of the word "Shādmānegī" (joy) within Kalila wa Dimna. Additionally, another scholarly work has explored the concept of "tolerance and forbearance" in the Divan of Hafez, albeit employing Fairclough's model of discourse analysis, which represents a distinct methodological approach from the present research. Despite these valuable contributions, a discernible and significant research gap persists within the field of Persian language studies. Specifically, there is a lack of comprehensive componential analysis dedicated to the word 'Modārā' within Nasrullah Monshi's Bahramshahi Kalila wa Dimna. This paper directly addresses this lacuna by focusing on the specific linguistic context of the aforementioned work and systematically applying componential analysis. The objective is to provide a more precise and scholarly understanding of this pivotal concept. MethodologyThis research employs a descriptive-analytical method, specifically utilizing "componential analysis" to investigate the synchronic semantic components of the word 'Modārā' as it functions within Nasrullah Monshi's Bahramshahi Kalila wa Dimna. Within this analytical framework, a word's meaning is systematically decomposed into its constituent semantic features. To achieve this, all eleven instances where the word 'Modārā' appears in the text were meticulously extracted. Subsequently, through a detailed examination of each instance within its specific syntagmatic chain and its semantic relationships with collocating words, the prominent semantic components inherent in each application were precisely identified. This analysis was not predicated solely on dictionary definitions; rather, the semantic components were derived by scrutinizing the syntagmatic chains within the original text. These findings were further cross-verified with other contemporary texts from a similar period to ensure contextual accuracy. Each identified component, representing a minimal unit of meaning, was then formally defined using the binary markers ‘+’ (indicating the presence of the feature) or ‘−’ (indicating the absence of the feature). Discussion and FindingsAn examination of the term 'Modārā' in authoritative Persian and Arabic dictionaries reveals notable ambiguity and even outright contradiction in its lexical definitions. While esteemed sources such as Dehkhoda, Moin, and Anvari predominantly associate it with positive concepts like affability, forbearance, and gentleness, other lexicographers, including Nafisi, also list antithetical meanings such as "hypocrisy and deceit." This semantic duality is further echoed in the word's Arabic etymology, where a clear distinction is drawn between the hamzated form, al-mudāra’ah (implying repelling or warding off), and the non-hamzated form, al-mudārāh (implying gentleness towards people). This inherent semantic breadth explicitly exposes the limitations of relying solely on dictionaries and underscores the critical necessity of in-depth textual analysis.The componential analysis of 'Modārā' within Kalila wa Dimna demonstrates that the word consistently signifies a complex, purposeful, and pragmatic strategy, rather than a simple ethical virtue.Modārā as a Military Strategy: In direct contrast to "war and coercion" (jang va mokābareh), "gentleness and Modārā" (rifq va Modārā) are presented as more effective instruments for "vanquishing" an adversary. Its collocation with "intellect" (kherad) as opposed to "physical strength" (mardi) further emphasizes its cunning, instrumental, and insincere facets when employed to debilitate a foe.Modārā as a Defensive Tactic: Within the narrative of the ape and the turtle, the ape strategically employs "gentleness and Modārā" as a precautionary and defensive maneuver. This is done to safeguard his life and to carefully assess the impending danger, particularly when he develops suspicion towards his companion. This behavior, while outwardly kind, is intrinsically motivated by suspicion and calculated self-interest.Modārā as a Philosophy of Life: For the "wise man" (āqel), Modārā functions as a fundamental principle for ensuring survival and achieving success. This principle encompasses flexibility (metaphorically described as "turning the fur-coat towards the rain"), necessitating variable conduct with both allies and adversaries based on strategic "expediency" (maslahat) rather than genuine sincerity, and demanding astute, intelligent planning. This approach distinctly reflects the pragmatic worldview pervasive throughout the work.Modārā as a Tool of Deception: In the renowned story of Borzuyeh, he skillfully utilizes "gentleness and Modārā" as a comprehensive strategy to advance his clandestine mission. By "feigning" a quest for knowledge, deliberately pretending ignorance, and cultivating instrumental relationships, he deploys Modārā for the purposes of expedient deception and intelligence gathering.Modārā in Power Dynamics: Within the hierarchical structure of the royal court, Modārā is depicted as an indispensable requisite for attaining success. This involves enduring hardships, strategically suppressing anger with "forbearance" (helm), and adeptly managing "incidents" (havādes) with a combination of cunning and flexibility to ultimately achieve one's desired "goal" (morād).Modārā from a Position of Weakness: When confronted by a powerful enemy, "humility" (tavāzo') and "gentleness" (talattof) emerge as crucial tools for averting immediate danger. The comparison of this behavior to a "dry plant" that gracefully bends in a strong wind effectively highlights the component of flexible adaptation as a means of survival. ConclusionThe comprehensive analysis of 'Modārā' as it is applied throughout Kalila wa Dimna unequivocally demonstrates that the word consistently embodies a distinct set of recurring semantic components. These identified components include: [+Behavior], [+Kind (Apparent)], [+Instrumental], [+Expedient], [+Cunning], [+Flexible], [-Sincere], [+Purposeful (to gain benefit)], [+Based on Calculation (not emotion)], and [+Tactical/Strategic].Building upon these findings, 'Modārā' in Kalila wa Dimna can be precisely defined as: an outwardly kind and gentle behavior that is inherently instrumental, expedient, cunning, and flexible, adopted strategically based on rational calculations to achieve a specific benefit (such as survival, averting danger, or acquiring power), and not necessarily accompanied by genuine inner sincerity.Therefore, 'Modārā' in this significant work transcends the conventional understanding of mere forbearance or simple gentleness. Instead, it represents a complex and multifaceted strategy for effectively advancing objectives, skillfully managing interactions, and ensuring survival within a world characterized by challenges and intense competition. This detailed analysis not only reveals the inherent limitations of general dictionaries in fully capturing the semantic nuances of words within specific historical and literary contexts but also profoundly emphasizes the critical necessity of applying precise semantic methodologies to the scholarly investigation of classical texts. For future research, it is strongly suggested that a similar componential analysis of this word be undertaken in other classical Persian texts, and that a diachronic study of its semantic evolution across different periods be pursued.
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