Literary Language Research Journal

Redefining and Reclassifying Uslub al-Hakim from the Perspective of Relevance Theory

zeinab akbari; nasrin fagih malek marzban

Volume 3, Issue 2 , June 2025, Pages 9-40

https://doi.org/10.22054/jrll.2025.88905.1206

Abstract

AbstractIn classical Islamic rhetoric, Uslub al-Hakim—a stylistic device characterized by deliberate deviation from surface expectations within dialogic contexts—occupies an ambiguous and fragmented position. Its boundaries with similar rhetorical devices remain undefined, particularly within ... Read More AbstractIn classical Islamic rhetoric, Uslub al-Hakim—a stylistic device characterized by deliberate deviation from surface expectations within dialogic contexts—occupies an ambiguous and fragmented position. Its boundaries with similar rhetorical devices remain undefined, particularly within the Persian rhetorical tradition. The field consequently suffers from both a paucity of representative examples and theoretical neglect concerning its pragmatic dimensions. This paper first undertakes a historical-analytical reassessment of Uslub al-Hakim in classical rhetorical sources, clarifying its distinctions from adjacent rhetorical figures. Subsequently, based on core principles of Relevance Theory, the notion of "departure from apparent meaning" is reconceptualized across four inferential levels: 1) reinterpretation of explicature, 2) clash between explicature and implicature, 3) audience-driven inference construction, and 4) critical reframing of encyclopedic or normative assumptions. Employing a qualitative, descriptive-analytical method, this study draws on purposively sampled data from classical Persian texts, especially within the highly expressive genres of satire and mysticism. Contrary to Arabic-focused traditional sources with their limited exemplars, the findings reveal that the Persian literary heritage—particularly in wisdom dialogues—is replete with innovative instances of Uslub al-Hakim. The relevance-theoretic analysis of these cases offers a novel and fine-grained typology, while also demonstrating the cognitive-rhetorical potential of this device in generating cognitive effects, managing tense communicative contexts, and transforming audience perspectives. IntroductionWithin the Islamic rhetorical tradition, Uslub al-Hakim—literally "the manner of the wise"—is defined as a deliberate departure from the apparent requirements of discourse (khuruj ʿan muqtada al-zahir) to achieve a higher communicative goal. Despite its conceptual prominence in Arabic rhetoric, its theoretical and analytical treatment in Persian scholarship has remained fragmentary. Persian rhetorical manuals rarely extend beyond a handful of borrowed Arabic examples, thereby neglecting its widespread presence in Persian texts. Consequently, Uslub al-Hakim has often been viewed as a marginal stylistic ornament rather than a cognitively grounded communicative strategy.This study addresses that gap by redefining Uslub al-Hakim through the inferential framework of Relevance Theory (RT), as proposed by Sperber and Wilson (1986, 1995). RT conceptualizes communication as an inferential process that balances processing effort and cognitive effect, rather than as the decoding of fixed meanings. Using this model, the research reinterprets "departure from the apparent meaning" as an instance of inferential manipulation: the speaker intentionally alters the hearer’s interpretive expectations to guide them toward a more relevant, and often morally or spiritually profound, interpretation. MethodologyThis study employs a qualitative, descriptive-analytic approach grounded in pragmatic inference analysis. The research proceeds in two phases: 1) Historical-Conceptual Review: Classical Arabic and Persian sources—such as those of Sakkaki, Qazvini, and Taftazani—were critically examined to trace the evolution, definitional ambiguities, and overlap of Uslub al-Hakim with other figures like taʿrid (indirect reproach), kinaya (metonymic implication), and tawriya (double entendre); 2) Relevance-Theoretic Analysis: Following RT’s interpretive architecture, each example was analyzed across four inferential levels:Explicature: the explicit interpretation derived by the hearer;Implicated Premise: contextual assumptions activated from the discourse situation;Implicated Conclusion: the cognitive conclusion inferred from the interaction of explicit and contextual information;Processing Effort/Cognitive Effect: the degree of interpretive adjustment and the resulting insight or humor.Sampling followed a purposive strategy, focusing on dialogic discourse from classical Persian literature, especially within mystical and humorous genres. These genres were chosen because they contain numerous instances of indirect, context-dependent communication where meaning is achieved through interpretive recalibration rather than explicit exposition. Results and DiscussionThe analysis yielded a four-fold cognitive typology of Uslub al-Hakim, with each type corresponding to a distinct inferential mechanism within RT:Explicature-Based Uslub al-Hakim: The speaker manipulates or invalidates the hearer’s initial explicit interpretation. For instance, in Rumi’s dialogue—“He is a Christian, but why are you not God-fearing (tersa)?”—the polysemic shift in tersa from "Christian" to "one who fears [God]" reorients the hearer from social prejudice to spiritual introspection.Implicature-Based Uslub al-Hakim: Meaning arises through the hearer’s responsibility to infer unspoken premises and conclusions. When Abu Saʿid answers "What is servitude?" with "God created you free—be free!", the hearer must infer that true servitude lies in liberation from dual worldly attachments. This type exemplifies RT’s notion of interpretive enrichment through inferential responsibility.Conflict Between Explicit and Implicit Content: Here, humor or critique stems from a tension between the explicit meaning of the utterance and the contextual information available to the audience. When Jaʿfar al-Barmaki replies to Harun al-Rashid, "It was in the owners’ purses," his literal answer contradicts the implied accusation of incompetence, thereby producing a subversive political implicature: justice, not corruption, explains the absence of tribute.Manipulation of Broader Contextual Assumptions: This macro-pragmatic type targets collective stereotypes and value systems. In anecdotes like Bahlool’s retort to a mocking vizier—“Listen to me and obey, for you are among my subjects”—the humor and critique derive from reversing social hierarchies, exposing hypocrisy, and recalibrating the hearer’s evaluative framework.Across all four types, Uslub al-Hakim functions as a cognitive reorientation mechanism: it disrupts the initial interpretive path, imposes inferential recalculation, and rewards the hearer with a deeper insight. This aligns precisely with RT’s Communicative Principle of Relevance: every utterance presupposes its own optimal relevance, even when that relevance lies beneath the surface meaning. ConclusionThis study demonstrates that Uslub al-Hakim, traditionally treated as a peripheral rhetorical device, is in fact a strategic inferential phenomenon deeply rooted in the pragmatics of meaning construction. By aligning it with the inferential architecture of Relevance Theory, this research provides a novel cognitive typology capable of distinguishing the multiple mechanisms through which speakers achieve indirectness, irony, and wisdom in discourse.The four proposed categories—(1) explicature reinterpretation, (2) implicature loading, (3) explicit–implicit conflict, and (4) contextual assumption modulation—jointly reveal the complex interplay between linguistic form and cognitive inference. Analysis of Persian mystical and humorous texts confirms that the Persian literary tradition, far from lacking examples, is saturated with sophisticated uses of Uslub al-Hakim, which function to: correct or deepen ethical understanding; produce covert moral or political critique; challenge or invalidate entrenched assumptions; and reframe the hearer’s system of values.Thus, Uslub al-Hakim operates as a rhetorical technology of cognition, managing communicative tension, guiding interpretive attention, and enabling socially safe yet intellectually provocative speech. The study repositions this figure at the intersection of Islamic rhetoric, cognitive pragmatics, and Persian stylistics, offering a theoretical framework applicable to future genre-based investigations of its communicative and cultural functions.

A New Perspective on One of the Variant Readings in Hafez’s Poetry: Case Study, Savād-e Sehr or Savād-e Sahar?

Ahmad Goumepour; Hoseyn Salimi; Mojahed Gholami

Volume 3, Issue 2 , June 2025, Pages 41-76

https://doi.org/10.22054/jrll.2025.87683.1189

Abstract

AbstractOne of the less explored types of ambiguity (ihām) in Hafez’s poetry is the polysemy or multiple interpretations resulting from “variant readings”. Today, we are faced with a large number of ancient manuscripts of Hafez’s works, filled with textual variations and diverse ... Read More AbstractOne of the less explored types of ambiguity (ihām) in Hafez’s poetry is the polysemy or multiple interpretations resulting from “variant readings”. Today, we are faced with a large number of ancient manuscripts of Hafez’s works, filled with textual variations and diverse readings by scribes. Although these variations are a major factor in the emergence of different versions and critical editions of certain debated verses, sometimes this multiplicity does not stem from manuscript discrepancies but rather from the differences in how readers interpret or vocalize a particular word or phrase. This phenomenon can open the way to uncovering a unique type of ambiguity in Hafez’s poetry.In this article, drawing on Reception Theory and reader-oriented hermeneutics—which emphasize the conscious and unconscious role of the reader in meaning-making and consider diverse interpretations and readings both possible and inevitable—we offer a fresh perspective on the issue of variant readings in Hafez’s poetry. We investigate whether, instead of the conventional practice among commentators of privileging one reading over others, embracing the legitimacy of multiple readings of a single phrase could lead to the discovery of a lesser-studied form of ambiguity in Hafez’s work. A case study of the variant reading “savād-e sehr/sahar” reveals how the reader’s intervention in selecting or combining readings creates a new type of ambiguity in which both author and reader share in the production of meaning. Accordingly, variant readings in Hafez’s Dīvān can be seen not as an obstacle but as a platform for semantic openness and textual polyphony. IntroductionAmbiguity (ihām) is a central literary device in Hafez’s poetry. While rhetorical handbooks list various types of ambiguity, the polysemy created by textual variants has received little attention. This article, through the framework of Reception Theory, explores whether multiple interpretations resulting from such variants can be considered a distinct form of ihām intrinsic to Hafez’s poetry. Literature ReviewHermeneutical readings of Hafez have grown significantly in recent decades, from Dariush Ashouri’s Ontology of Hafez (1998) to Saleh Kakooei’s Hafez and Hermeneutics (2021). Other relevant studies include Rihani (2018), Amirinezhad (2011), Hajian & Davari (2015), Jowari (2005), and Namvar-Motlaq (2008). However, no comprehensive research has yet examined textual variants specifically through the lens of Reception Theory. MethodologyThis descriptive–analytical study relies on library sources, with theoretical grounding in Jauss’s and Iser’s reception aesthetics. Data are drawn from extant editions and commentaries of Hafez’s Divan. The analysis proceeds on three levels: (1) intra-textual (lexical, syntactic, rhetorical structures); (2) intertextual (comparison with literary and mystical traditions); and (3) hermeneutical (reader’s role in meaning-making, horizon of expectations, and textual gaps). Findings and DiscussionReception Theory, developed by Jauss and Iser in the late twentieth century, emphasizes the active role of readers in constructing meaning. Jauss’s concept of the horizon of expectations highlights how each reader interprets a text within a cultural and historical framework, while Iser stresses the significance of textual “gaps” that invite readers to participate in meaning-making. Together, these perspectives challenge traditional notions of fixed or authoritative interpretation, proposing instead that literary meaning emerges in the dynamic interaction between text and reader.One important source of polysemy in the Divan is the lack of diacritical marks in early manuscripts. Consider, for instance, verse 2 of ghazal no. 31, where the disputed word sahar may be read as sehr (magic) or sahar (dawn). Each reading reflects a different horizon of expectation: a reader steeped in the tradition of Persian love poetry gravitates toward sehr, while a mystically oriented reader may prefer sahar. From Iser’s perspective, this undecidability exemplifies the text’s strategic gaps, where meaning is suspended and left for the reader to resolve. The verse thus produces two distinct “implied readers,” each co-creating a different, yet valid, poetic world. ConclusionThe analysis shows that the absence of diacritical marks in early manuscripts not only creates phonetic ambiguity but also directly reshapes the semantic horizon of the verse. From Jauss’s viewpoint, such variants have altered horizons of expectation across Hafez’s reception history; from Iser’s perspective, they constitute textual “gaps” that activate reader participation. Consequently, the traditional debate over selecting the “most authentic reading” becomes secondary. Rather than confining Hafez’s poetry to a single meaning, all valid readings can be regarded as complementary pieces of a larger puzzle, enriching the ihām and polysemy of the Divan. In this sense, textual variants not only represent a distinct form of ihām but also provide a model for reinterpreting other classical Persian texts in light of modern literary theory.

An Early Construction for Participial Adjective

Mozhdeh KamaliFard

Volume 3, Issue 2 , June 2025, Pages 77-104

https://doi.org/10.22054/jrll.2025.88748.1205

Abstract

AbstractA limited number of grammatical constructions found in early Persian texts remain insufficiently understood with regard to their grammatical category, semantic function, and aesthetic role. One such construction is the phrase “chun + adjective + -ī.” This fundamental research, conducted ... Read More AbstractA limited number of grammatical constructions found in early Persian texts remain insufficiently understood with regard to their grammatical category, semantic function, and aesthetic role. One such construction is the phrase “chun + adjective + -ī.” This fundamental research, conducted through library-based sources, aims to examine the nature, function, semantic domains, aesthetic operation, and grammatical role of this construction, drawing upon examples attested in Persian poetic and prose works from the 4th to the 7th centuries AH. The findings reveal that this construction was not employed solely in the function of simile. In many instances, the element chun in this construction does not function as a preposition, conjunction, or adverb, nor does it belong to the semantic field of comparison. Rather, it was predominantly used to express state accompanied by intensification or exaggeration; hence, it may be regarded as an intensifier (tashdidgar). This construction, which conveys a state imbued with a degree of exaggeration, occurs in various syntactic positions within the sentence—such as predicate, specification, adjective, and adverb. Its use contributes to the beauty and literariness of the text through the mechanisms of hyperbole and defamiliarization. IntroductionIn Persian prose and verse from the 4th/10th to the 7th/13th centuries, one encounters a grammatical construction that has received little systematic attention in modern scholarship. This structure follows the pattern chon / cho + adjective + -i. Most commentators have classified it within the semantic field of simile, whereas the textual evidence suggests that the author’s intention was not one of comparison. The present study examines the nature, usage, semantic categories, and aesthetic function of this construction in classical Persian texts. Review of the Related LiteratureThe only extant study addressing this structure is that of Shafiʿi Kadkani, who rejects its comparative function, arguing instead for its primary role in expressing hyperbole. In contrast, Malek al-Shoʿara Bahar and Minovi have acknowledged the semantic category of comparison in this pattern. To date, however, no research has examined its grammatical type, syntactic roles, or aesthetic function in detail. MethodologyThis research adopts a descriptive–analytical approach grounded in library and documentary sources. Examples were drawn from a corpus of classical Persian prose and poetry, with particular attention to syntactic environment and contextual meaning. Discussion and AnalysisThe study first investigated the fixed elements of the construction, namely chon (since/like/when) and the suffix -i. Relevant definitions and classifications in Persian grammars and lexicons were summarized in Tables 2 and 3. The extracted examples were then subjected to close analysis. The findings indicate that expressions denoting simile follow the pattern chon + noun, in which chon functions as a preposition conveying resemblance. This usage differs fundamentally from the pattern chon + adjective + -i. Further examination revealed that the semantic categories of state and exaggeration are consistently present across all examples. The term chon in this context does not correspond to any of the grammatical or semantic types listed in Table 2. Likewise, the suffix -i does not function as the indefinite marker, since the indefinite -i either attaches to a noun, to an adjective modifying a noun, or to an adjective substituting for a noun. In this construction, however, no noun is present, and the adjective retains its strictly adjectival value rather than serving as a nominal substitute. It also became apparent that the adjectives employed in this structure convey genuine adjectival meanings and do not replace implied nouns. In other words, within this construction, the adjective never functions as a nominal equivalent. Consider the following passage from Tarikh-e Bayhaqi: “Amir Muhammad was, for two or three days, chon ghamnaki va motahayyeri [extremely sad and bewildered] ... On the third day Ahmad Arsalan said: ... ‘Whatever is destined must come to pass; there is little benefit in remaining sorrowful.’” Here, Amir Muhammad—having been deposed and imprisoned in a fortress—is not merely like a sorrowful person; rather, he is profoundly grief-stricken and distressed. A similar pattern appears elsewhere in the same text: “And when I reached home, night had fallen, and my horse had been left without barley. I became deeply distressed and chon ghamnak [extremely sorrowful].” The two expressions exhibit parallel syntactic structures. Just as sakht (“utterly,” “intensely”) functions as an adverb or intensifier in classical Persian, chon in this context performs a comparable role. Moreover, just as tang-del (“disheartened,” “distressed”) expresses a state rather than resemblance, ghamnak (“sorrowful”) likewise denotes a condition, not a comparison. From the analysis of the textual evidence, the following conclusions emerge: a) Chon does not express resemblance, nor does it act as a preposition, conjunction, or adverb. b) The semantic category of comparison is absent from these constructions; instead, the categories of state and hyperbole are consistently present. c) The word following chon is always an adjective, conveying a purely adjectival meaning rather than a nominal one. d) The adjective is of the participial type, typically describing a transient or momentary state. e) The suffix -i is not the indefinite marker, since it attaches neither to a noun nor to an adjective functioning as a nominal substitute. f) The construction occurs in adjectival, adverbial, predicative, and complement positions within the sentence. ConclusionDrawing upon examples from classical Persian texts and a grammatical–semantic analysis of the chon / cho + adjective + -i construction, this study argues that the pattern functioned in pre-modern Persian as a means of forming a participial adjective characterized by a heightened degree of intensity or hyperbole. Within this structure, chon operates as an intensifier, while -i serves as a suffix conveying notions of multiplicity and elevation. Notably, no existing Persian grammar or lexicon has identified chon as an intensifying particle, making this finding both novel and significant. Ultimately, it may be concluded that the pattern chon + adjective + -i represents one of the grammatical mechanisms through which participial adjectives were formed in early Persian.The aesthetic function of this construction rests primarily upon two interrelated features—hyperbole and defamiliarization—which together enhance its expressive power and stylistic distinctiveness in classical Persian prose and poetry.

A Layered Stylistic Analysis of the Syntactic, Rhetorical, and Lexical Dimensions of Quasi-Sentences in Khaghani’s Divan

Mahdi Ramazani

Volume 3, Issue 2 , June 2025, Pages 105-138

https://doi.org/10.22054/jrll.2025.88070.1196

Abstract

AbstractGrammar is a discipline concerned with the study, description, and analysis of the rules governing language, thereby elucidating its structural and functional characteristics. Despite the foundational role of grammar in organizing the structure and tone of poetry, the category of quasi-sentences—as ... Read More AbstractGrammar is a discipline concerned with the study, description, and analysis of the rules governing language, thereby elucidating its structural and functional characteristics. Despite the foundational role of grammar in organizing the structure and tone of poetry, the category of quasi-sentences—as a subset of linguistic constructions—has received scant and sporadic scholarly attention in previous research and reference works. Khaghani’s Divan, by virtue of the high frequency and remarkable diversity of quasi-sentences, provides a rich corpus for examining this phenomenon. Employing a layered stylistics approach and focusing on three levels—syntactic, rhetorical, and lexical—this study analyzes selected poems from the Divan with respect to the placement, structural formation, and functions of quasi-sentences. Within this framework, the research investigates the types and variations of syntactic structures; the deliberate deployment of quasi-sentences in key positions within the couplet; rhetorical functions such as brevity, emphasis, and figurative imagery; and the strategic selection and combination of lexemes attuned to the semantic and musical context of the verse. The findings reveal the tripartite functions—syntactic, rhetorical, and lexical—of quasi-sentences in Khaghani’s poetry, clarifying their role in shaping his distinctive style. By highlighting this stylistic device, the study opens new avenues for deeper analysis of classical Persian texts.1. IntroductionPersian grammar, as a systematic discipline for identifying the structural and functional properties of language, is built upon the study and analysis of syntactic, morphological, and lexical components of texts. Among the grammatical categories that have received limited scholarly attention in the literature is the “quasi-sentence” — a linguistic unit that functions semantically as a complete sentence, yet lacks the full syntactic structure of one. The prominence of this category in classical works, particularly in Khaqani’s Divan, is significant in terms of frequency, diversity, and stylistic potential. Mastering both Persian and Arabic, and fully aware of rhetorical capacities, Khaqani deliberately employed quasi-sentences in his qasidas, ghazals, and other poetic forms, utilizing them as tools for emphasis, brevity, and emotional expression. This study, employing a layered stylistics approach, seeks to examine the lexical, syntactic, and rhetorical functions of quasi-sentences, elucidating their role in shaping Khaqani’s individual style.2. MethodologyThis research adopts a descriptive–analytical method within the theoretical framework of layered stylistics. The complete corpus of Khaqani’s Divan (based on Mirjalaleddin Kazzazi’s edition) was thoroughly reviewed twice, and all instances of quasi-sentences were extracted. Samples were selected based on syntactic, rhetorical, and lexical diversity to ensure statistical and content validity. Data collection combined a library-based approach with direct textual analysis: authoritative sources in grammar and rhetoric were consulted alongside a systematic reading of the Divan. The analysis focused on three principal dimensions — syntactic position and structure of quasi-sentences; rhetorical capacities (brevity, phonetic music, emphasis, and emotional transmission); and lexical characteristics (origin, frequency, selection, and combination). Where necessary, comparisons with contemporary poets were made to highlight Khaqani’s distinctive features.3. DiscussionSyntactic Layer: Findings indicate that quasi-sentences occur most frequently at the beginning of verses; the verse-initial position captures the audience’s attention and conveys an oratorical or epic tone. Their presence in rhyme positions intensifies their rhetorical and phonetic effect, as rhyme is a focal point for both mental and auditory attention. Furthermore, Khaqani constructed some quasi-sentences in accordance with Arabic syntactic rules, reflecting his awareness of cross-linguistic syntactic adaptation. Grammatical modality is notably prominent, with examples in subjunctive, indicative, optative, emotional, and epistemic modes, illustrating the broad semantic range of these structures in his poetry.Rhetorical Layer: Analysis reveals that quasi-sentences in Khaqani’s Divan are multifunctional. In terms of brevity, they convey full meaning in the shortest possible linguistic form, compressing the rhythmic pace of the text. Repetitive forms enrich the phonetic music, creating consonance and enhancing the auditory quality of the verse. Emotional transmission is another salient role: high-affect structures reflect the poet’s self-presence and his responses to personal and social situations. Additionally, in certain contexts, quasi-sentences act as emphasis markers, distinguished by special stress patterns that highlight semantic content.Lexical Layer: Lexical choices for quasi-sentences are highly deliberate. Some forms are derived from Old or Classical Persian, imparting historical and epic resonance, while others originate in Arabic, imbuing the text with liturgical or supplicatory coloration. From a literary-genre perspective, quasi-sentences may serve didactic functions or lyrical/emotive purposes. Rare, unconventional examples within his oeuvre possess high stylistic value, as their low frequency in Persian literature makes their use a mark of poetic innovation.4. ConclusionThe tripartite analysis — lexical, syntactic, and rhetorical — demonstrates that quasi-sentences, despite lacking the full syntactic completeness of sentences, possess substantial semantic, phonetic, and syntactic potential, and play a pivotal role in forming Khaqani’s individual style. Their frequent occurrence in initial and rhyming positions, integration of cross-linguistic structures, diverse modalities, brevity, and phonetic musicality all contribute to making them one of his principal expressive tools. Khaqani’s strategic lexical selection, use of archaic and cross-linguistic elements, and incorporation of rare forms reveal his linguistic awareness and stylistic creativity. These findings not only deepen the understanding of his poetic style but also offer a model for parallel research in other classical Persian texts.

A Critical Discourse Analysis of the Role and Position of School in Houshang Moradi Kermani’s the Tale of That Jar

Soudabeh Shokrollahzadeh

Volume 3, Issue 2 , June 2025, Pages 139-172

https://doi.org/10.22054/jrll.2025.87728.1190

Abstract

AbstractThis study aims to analyze the roles and positions of the school in Houshang Moradi Kermani’s school story The Tale of That Jar drawing on Norman Fairclough’s Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). The research follows a qualitative paradigm with a descriptive-interpretive approach, employing ... Read More AbstractThis study aims to analyze the roles and positions of the school in Houshang Moradi Kermani’s school story The Tale of That Jar drawing on Norman Fairclough’s Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). The research follows a qualitative paradigm with a descriptive-interpretive approach, employing critical discourse analysis as the method for data analysis. At the descriptive level, the findings show that lexical choices, syntactic structures, and metaphors reflect the severity of deprivation in rural schools, while linguistic elements highlight the school’s position within the village and the role of collective cooperation in addressing educational challenges. At the interpretive level, power relations are represented through the fluid subject positions of teachers and students: teachers oscillate between disciplinary authority, emotional support, and social mediation, while students, beyond their educational roles, appear in service, supervisory, socio-ritual, playful, and imaginative roles. Villagers also represent a range of subject positions. Intertextuality and interdiscursivity with local beliefs, rituals, and folk discourses are particularly notable. At the explanatory level, the study examines the ideology of educational justice in rural areas, the relationship between governmental shortcomings and social cooperation and solidarity, representations of gendered and disciplinary ideologies, as well as the phenomena of shame and resistance within the school, along with the intertwined roles of humor and resistance. The findings indicate that the school story genre in Iranian children’s literature as exemplified in this novel takes on a meaning distinct from that of its Western counterpart, arising from the school’s connection with the rural lifeworld. This underscores the context-specific nature of genre definitions, emphasizing how genres are shaped by local cultural and social conditions.1.IntroductionAs Stephens (1992) states children’s literature is innately ideological. Some texts present ideology overtly, while others do so subtly, naturalizing social values and structures and making them appear self-evident. In this context, the school story genre occupies a particular position, as the school functions as an ideological institution that, through the internalization of dominant norms and rules, reproduces social order and consolidates power relations. At the same time, the school can also serve as a space for resistance, reflection, and the questioning of dominant discourses. From this perspective, the school story represents a contested arena in which language and discourse play a decisive role in either reproducing or challenging ideology. Critical discourse analysis, as an approach that emphasizes the relationship between language, power, and ideology, provides an effective tool for uncovering this process. Accordingly, the present study, drawing on Fairclough’s framework of critical discourse analysis, examines The Tale of that Jar by Houshang Moradi Kermani seeking to answer three questions: (1) How do the linguistic and structural features of this novel reflect or challenge power and school ideologies? (2) What discourses, subject positions, and power relations are present in the text? (3) What are the underlying ideologies and social practices related to the school represented in this novel? Literature ReviewThe relevant studies related to this topic can be divided into three categories:Critical discourse analysis of Moradi Kermani’s works.Non-critical discourse analysis of Moradi Kermani’s works.Some studies have approached Moradi Kermani’s works from the perspective of power and ideology; however, they have not employed a framework grounded in critical discourse analysis. Research Methodology and Theoretical FrameworkThis study adopts Norman Fairclough’s framework of critical discourse analysis, which conceptualizes language as a form of social practice and highlights the ways in which discourses contribute to the production and reproduction of power relations and ideology. Fairclough’s three level model comprises description, which analyzes the linguistic and stylistic features of a text to uncover embedded values and ideologies; interpretation, which examines the processes of text production and reception within situational and intertextual contexts; and explanation, which situates the text within broader social, cultural, and ideological structures. The present research is situated within a qualitative paradigm and employs a descriptive and interpretive methodology. Data were analyzed using critical discourse analysis guided by Fairclough’s three level framework to reveal the text’s latent dimensions and mechanisms of power. The sample is The Tale of That Jar by Houshang Moradi Kermani, chosen for its strong focus on the school environment in a rural context. Discussion and AnalysisAt the descriptive level, the findings show that lexical choices, syntactic structures, and metaphors reflect the severity of deprivation in rural schools, while linguistic elements highlight the school’s position within the village and the role of collective cooperation in addressing educational challenges. At the interpretive level, power relations are represented through the fluid subject positions of teachers and students: teachers oscillate between disciplinary authority, emotional support, and social mediation, while students, beyond their educational roles, appear in service, supervisory, socio-ritual, playful, and imaginative roles. Villagers also represent a range of subject positions. Intertextuality and interdiscursivity with local beliefs, rituals, and folk discourses are particularly notable. At the explanatory level, the study examines the ideology of educational justice in rural areas, the relationship between governmental shortcomings and social cooperation and solidarity, representations of gendered and disciplinary ideologies, as well as the phenomena of shame and resistance within the school, along with the intertwined roles of humor and resistance. ConclusionThis study reveals that the school in The Tale of That Jar functions as a complex discourse encompassing power, resistance, inequality, and collective cooperation. The interplay between the school and the village’s socio-cultural ecosystem, coupled with the shortcomings of formal institutions, reconceptualizes the school story genre in relation to the Western tradition. Within this narrative, the school emerges as a site for social action, the pursuit of justice, and communal engagement. Consequently, the analysis underscores that the school story genre is inherently culturally situated and contextually grounded, acquiring distinctive meanings and significance in diverse social and cultural environments according to local conditions.

Cultivating Mind and Language; Blending Loops in Borujerdi Proverbs Based on Conceptual Blending Theory

hojjat allah omidali

Volume 3, Issue 2 , June 2025, Pages 173-206

https://doi.org/10.22054/jrll.2025.86407.1169

Abstract

AbstractConceptual Blending Theory posits that meaning in language emerges from the fluid integration of two or more conceptual domains within a blended space. Borujerdi proverbs—concise, image-rich expressions rooted in the region’s agrarian and pastoral culture—offer a particularly ... Read More AbstractConceptual Blending Theory posits that meaning in language emerges from the fluid integration of two or more conceptual domains within a blended space. Borujerdi proverbs—concise, image-rich expressions rooted in the region’s agrarian and pastoral culture—offer a particularly fertile ground for analysis through this lens. This study aims to elucidate the meaning-construction processes in Borujerdi proverbs using the conceptual blending framework. Employing a descriptive-analytical methodology grounded in library research, we examined a corpus of 25 proverbs related to agricultural traditions drawn from both written and oral sources. The research question is: “According to Conceptual Blending Theory, how is meaning constructed in Borujerdi proverbs?” Findings indicate a recurrent three-stage process: composition (initial merger of two input spaces), completion (enrichment via cultural background knowledge and lived experience), and elaboration (extraction of emergent meaning within the blended space). These stages faithfully represent the cognitive and metaphorical mechanisms at work, conveying ethical, economic, and forward-looking messages succinctly and powerfully. The study underscores the analytical utility of Conceptual Blending Theory for investigating folk language and cultural memory, and recommends its application in comparative studies across other dialects and fields of cultural research. IntroductionProverbs occupy a privileged position in reflecting collective mentality because of their concision, repeatability, and semantic density. These compact utterances package abstract concepts into familiar, concrete images by combining metaphor, humor, and empirical realities. Among the treasury of local speech, Borujerdi proverbs are a striking example of the interweaving of language and local culture: they not only mirror livelihood practices, social relations, and moral outlooks of the community, but through their characteristic pictorial structures they render abstract notions in lived, tangible forms. Emerging from both rural and urban life in the region, these proverbs encode concepts such as suffering, hypocrisy, fairness, effort, trickery, and justice in succinct structures rich with pragmatic force. In effect, they are verbal embodiments of unwritten narratives transmitted across generations. Conceptual Blending Theory, as laid out by Fauconnier and Turner, holds that meaning in language arises from the dynamic integration of mental spaces; in this process two or more conceptual domains are merged in a new blended space to produce novel meanings.This study aims to analyze the process of conceptual blending in Borujerdi proverbs and to identify the cognitive and metaphorical mechanisms embedded in their structure. The central research question is: According to Conceptual Blending Theory, how is meaning constructed in Borujerdi proverbs? Literature ReviewAlthough numerous studies have applied Conceptual Blending Theory to literature, religion, and media, comparatively few investigations have focused on the structural and cognitive properties of vernacular proverbs. This research, while acknowledging previous contributions, specifically probes the meaning-construction processes in Borujerdi proverbs using the blending framework. In doing so it both strengthens the theoretical corpus of blending studies and contributes to the documentation and interpretation of local cultural heritage. MethodologyThe study adopts a descriptive-analytical approach grounded in library research. Borujerdi proverbs were collected from written and oral sources, and from this larger pool a sample of 25 proverbs related to two key agricultural/domestic animals (cow and donkey) — chosen for their higher relative frequency among animal-based agricultural proverbs — was selected as the dataset for conceptual analysis. Each proverb was analyzed within Fauconnier and Turner’s four-space model by identifying the two input spaces, the generic space, the blended space, the principal mappings, and the vital relations that structure the blend. Analysis and DiscussionIn the agricultural and pastoral traditions of Borujerd, the cow and the donkey have played pivotal economic and transport roles; accordingly, many local proverbs derive from observations of these animals’ behaviors and afford culturally salient imagery. Analyses of representative items demonstrate how two input spaces (for example, a concrete animal-based scenario and a correlated behavioral outcome) are linked via a generic space and recombined in a blended space that yields emergent meanings. As an illustrative case, consider the proverb:Gusâl ve tenâfe gardeneš seyl mokona, ke ferâr mekona (“The cow watching the rope around its neck; when it sees the rope slack, it runs away.”)Input space 1: the calf’s repeated attention to the rope (a cognitive/monitoring behavior). Input space 2: the act of running away (an overt behavioral response). Generic space: the recurrent pattern assessment → decision → action. Blended space: an image of the vigilant calf that waits for the opportune moment to flee; the emergent meaning reads: one who constantly monitors constraints will act only when an actual opportunity to escape appears.This and other cases show that blending exposes multi-layered cognitive and metaphorical mechanisms: concrete elements (e.g., “rope around the calf’s neck”) combine with cognitive reactions or practical outcomes (e.g., escape or entrapment) to produce socially and ethically charged messages. The analysis repeatedly reveals a three-stage process—composition, completion, elaboration—where initial mapping is supplemented by cultural background knowledge and then imaginatively extended within the blend to yield novel interpretive inferences. ConclusionApplication of Conceptual Blending Theory to Borujerdi proverbs demonstrates the theory’s capacity to model the linguistic and cultural complexity of traditional sayings. Proverbs function as compressed repositories of local knowledge: through blending they efficiently encode ethical, economic, and pragmatic guidance. The observed blending processes are often networked and multi-layered; the three-stage pattern of composition–completion–elaboration consistently underlies the generation of emergent meanings aligned with farmers’ lived logic (prudence in economic decisions, fairness in social interactions, and warnings about short-term risks). This approach not only deepens theoretical understanding of proverb semantics but also highlights the value of blending analysis for preserving and interpreting intangible cultural heritage.

The Structure of the Figure of Speech Istikhdām and its Identification on the Basis of Ellipsis

Volume 1, Issue 1 , April 2023, , Pages 137-159

https://doi.org/10.22054/jrll.2022.66647.1013

Abstract

Istikhdām is a rhetorical figure of speech based on double entendre or polysemy. The ambiguity that exists in defining this figure of speech in Persian rhetorical books has led to inaccurate or wrong understanding of this figure and its examples. In this article, the author intends to offer a ... Read More

Investigation and analysis of the process of transformation of “Samandar”(salamander) in Persian, Western and Chinese ancient texts

Volume 1, Issue 4 , March 2024, , Pages 9-28

https://doi.org/10.22054/jrll.2023.76483.1057

Abstract

The Word "Samandar" which means a mythical Eurasian animal has been mentioned in the form of various animals in Chinese, Persian and Western historical texts and literature. In Western texts, this animal was usually described as a "tailed amphibian that lives in fire", which is actually considered the ... Read More

Aesthetics in the poems of Rabia Qazdari

Volume 1, Issue 2 , June 2023, , Pages 167-184

https://doi.org/10.22054/jrll.2023.71650.1034

Abstract

Aesthetics is an ability to better understand perceptions as well as phenomena such as music that causes a change in a person's mood and attitude. In fact, the definition of beauty can be very broad or very narrow. Some have tried to define beauty in an objective matter especially to search: for example, ... Read More

Types of Semantic Deviation in Nasrollāh Monshi's Kalilah va Demnah

Volume 2, Issue 1 , June 2024, , Pages 159-182

https://doi.org/10.22054/jrll.2024.78924.1068

Abstract

Abstract Language, as the primary medium of literature and communication, plays a crucial role in creating literary works. Among the various tools writers and poets use to harness language's power and enrich their work is semantic deviation, a concept that emerged with the formalist school of literary ... Read More Abstract Language, as the primary medium of literature and communication, plays a crucial role in creating literary works. Among the various tools writers and poets use to harness language's power and enrich their work is semantic deviation, a concept that emerged with the formalist school of literary criticism. Formalism brought fundamental changes to literary studies, asserting that every literary work is independent and self-sufficient. The school aimed to break free from past literary norms and boundaries, challenging conventional linguistic and literary principles. Formalists argued that literature's essence lies in deviating from these conventional language boundaries. According to formalists, style emerges from deviating from standard language use. They posited that a literary work's imaginative quality stems from surpassing common language norms for artistic purposes. Semantic deviation, in particular, became a fundamental tool for writers and poets to create novel meanings in their work. This perspective led to the introduction of the concept of defamiliarization in literature, emphasizing the idea that literary language should make the familiar strange, thereby enhancing the reader's perception and engagement with the text. Shklovsky introduced the concept of defamiliarization as a technique writers and poets use to make their texts appear unfamiliar to readers. This view, held by Russian formalists, was later challenged and expanded by the Prague school of linguistics. Unlike the formalists, who focused solely on defamiliarization in literary texts, the Prague school considered all textual elements, both familiar and unfamiliar. They argued that these elements are intertwined and mutually dependent, making it impossible to examine them in isolation. This holistic approach led to the replacement of defamiliarization with the concept of foregrounding. When a writer employs defamiliarization techniques, it creates a static and conflicting relationship between these mechanisms and other textual elements. However, foregrounding affects the overall structure of the text more dynamically. According to Leach, foregrounding occurs through two main methods: parallelism and deviation. Parallelism can be thought of as an unexpected degree of regularity in the text, whereas deviation is an unexpected degree of irregularity in the text. This perspective provides a more comprehensive framework for analyzing literary techniques and their effects on the text as a whole. Non-normativity in literature occurs when a writer or poet uses terms and combinations that break the boundaries of standard language, challenging the reader's mind. This deviation from norms can be classified into eight main categories: lexical, syntactic, phonological, graphological, semantic, dialectal, stylistic, and historical, all of which affect meaning in various ways. Semantic deviation involves using phrases and sentences in novel ways, creating meanings that differ from their conventional usage in standard language. This is achieved through innovative semantic relations and imaginative forms. Nasrollāh Monshi's Kalilah va Demnah is notable for its significant use of imaginative elements, making it an important text for understanding the linguistic and literary style of 6th-century prose. This study aims to reexamine Kalilah va Demnah through the lens of semantic deviation, using the model presented by Farzān Sojudi. This study employs a descriptive-analytical approach, explaining each type of semantic deviation based on Sojudi's perspective. Using a library research method and focusing on Nasrollāh Monshi's Kalilah va Demnah, the study categorizes and presents numerous examples of semantic deviation according to the specified theory. The research findings indicate that Nasrollāh Monshi consistently used semantic deviation in Kalilah va Demnah to enhance the text's imaginative quality and make better use of language. The frequency of semantic deviation in this work is higher compared to other types of norm deviation. This study contributes to our understanding of the literary techniques employed in classical Persian literature and highlights the importance of semantic deviation in creating ornate prose.

A Study of the Ghazals of Hāfez based on Jakobson’s Theory of Communicative Function

Volume 1, Issue 4 , March 2024, , Pages 62-92

https://doi.org/10.22054/jrll.2024.76876.1059

Abstract

Jakobson’s model of language functions categorizes effective acts of communication into six distinct functions: referential, emotive, conative, phatic, metalingual, and poetic. According to Jakobson, artists can influence the audience by utilizing these functions to channel their message. The functions ... Read More

The Study of Communicative Functions of Eloquent Silence in Molavi`s Works

Maryam Kaykhai; Mostafa Salari; Behroz Romiani

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript, Available Online from 07 September 2025

https://doi.org/10.22054/jrll.2025.86606.1172

Abstract

Silence, as one of the key elements of communication, has been emphasized in various cultures and texts, including mystical literature. In mystical literature, silence goes beyond the absence of speech and serves as a means of conveying profound mystical, emotional, and philosophical meanings. Eloquent ... Read More

The Collapse of Meaning in Poetic Language: A Deconstructive Reading of Ahmad Shamlu’s The Death of Naseri Based on Jacques Derrida’s Theory

Reza Ghanbari Abdolmaleki

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript, Available Online from 08 September 2025

https://doi.org/10.22054/jrll.2025.85943.1160

Abstract

Drawing on Jacques Derrida’s theory of deconstruction, this article offers a multi-layered analysis of The Death of Naseri, a poem by Ahmad Shamlu. In this reading, poetic language is not regarded as a vehicle for fixing meaning, but as a medium of suspension, subversion, and slippage of signification. ... Read More

Semiotics of Three Adapted Stories by Gholam-Hossein Saedi in Cinema Based on Daniel Chandler's Theory

Alireza Nabilou; Atefe Saleh

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript, Available Online from 27 November 2025

https://doi.org/10.22054/jrll.2025.87765.1191

Abstract

Persian literature encompasses works with diverse themes; however, despite this richness, cinematic adaptations of literary works in Iranian cinema are significantly fewer compared to global cinema. The aim of research is to discover the reasons behind filmmakers' selection of these limited literary ... Read More

Volume 3 (2025)

Volume 2 (2024)

Volume 1 (2023)

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