Maryam Kaykhai; Mostafa Salari; Behroz Romiani
Abstract
Silence, as one of the key elements of communication, has been emphasized in various cultures and texts, including mystical literature. In mystical literature, silence goes beyond the absence of speech and serves as a means of conveying profound mystical, emotional, and philosophical meanings. Eloquent ...
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Silence, as one of the key elements of communication, has been emphasized in various cultures and texts, including mystical literature. In mystical literature, silence goes beyond the absence of speech and serves as a means of conveying profound mystical, emotional, and philosophical meanings. Eloquent silence, as a meaningful tool in linguistic communication, holds a significant place in mystical literature. This study investigates the communicative roles of Eloquent silence in Rumi’s works, particularly Masnavi-ye Ma’navi and Divan-e Shams, based on the theories of Jakobson (1960) and Ephrat (2008). Conducted using a descriptive-analytical method with a qualitative approach, the data were collected through content analysis of verses related to silence. The findings reveal six communicative roles: emotive, persuasive, referential, poetic, empathetic, and metalingual, each with specific subcategories. The persuasive role is notably frequent in both Divan-e Shams and Masnavi. No significant difference was observed in the application of silence roles between the two works.Key words: Eloquent silence, Rumi, Masnavi-ye Ma’navi, Divan-e Shams, communicative functions, Jakobson, Ephrat
Reza Ghanbari Abdolmaleki
Abstract
Abstract
Drawing on Jacques Derrida’s theory of deconstruction, this article offers a multi-layered analysis of “The Death of Naseri,” a poem by Ahmad Shamlu. In this reading, poetic language is not regarded as a vehicle for fixing meaning but as a medium for the suspension, subversion, ...
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Abstract
Drawing on Jacques Derrida’s theory of deconstruction, this article offers a multi-layered analysis of “The Death of Naseri,” a poem by Ahmad Shamlu. In this reading, poetic language is not regarded as a vehicle for fixing meaning but as a medium for the suspension, subversion, and slippage of signification. Relying on key concepts such as ‘différance’, ‘the absence of a center’, and the ‘collapse of binary oppositions, the article demonstrates how meaning in the text is not stabilized but constantly deferred and reproduced. A discourse analysis of imperative grammatical structures such as “Hurry, Naseri!” and the interpretation of Naseri’s silence as a form of resistance are among the focal points of this study. Through its use of opposing symbols (“crown of thorns,” “red rope,” “proud swan”), the voice of the spectators, the passive agency of Lazarus, and a polyphonic discursive structure, Shamlu’s poem dismantles classical narrative and fixed dichotomies. In this context, the shifting of subject positions, the suspension of time, and the absence of speech lead to a renewed understanding of the relationship between language and power, meaning, and identity. This analysis shows that “The Death of Naseri” is not merely a reflection of individual suffering but a discursive field for the redefinition of meaning in confrontation with violence, judgment, and erasure—a text that employs deconstruction not only as theory but as the very linguistic method of the poem itself.
Introduction and Problem Statement
The poem “The Death of Naseri” by the celebrated Iranian poet Ahmad Shamlu is widely regarded as a significant work that explores themes of suffering, oppression, and injustice. However, this article argues that a traditional, fixed interpretation of the poem as a simple narrative of individual suffering is incomplete. This study proposes that Shamlu’s poem is, in fact, a complex discursive field where meaning itself is destabilized, redefined, and perpetually deferred in the face of systemic violence and erasure. The central problem addressed is how to move beyond a conventional reading of the text to reveal its deeper, deconstructive layers, where poetic language operates not as a vessel for conveying a stable message but as a medium for the suspension and subversion of fixed meaning.
Brief Literature Review
This analysis draws primarily on the theoretical framework of Jacques Derrida’s deconstruction, utilizing key concepts such as différance, the absence of a center, and the collapse of binary oppositions. This framework allows for a reading that moves beyond the search for an authorial intent or a single, stable interpretation. The article also incorporates elements from other critical traditions, including Foucauldian critical discourse analysis, narrative theory, and semiotics, to provide a multi-layered understanding of the poem’s linguistic and symbolic complexities. By engaging with these diverse theories, the study positions itself in dialogue with previous scholarship while offering a novel approach to the text, emphasizing the poem’s ability to dismantle authoritative structures and fixed dichotomies.
Research Methodology
The research employs a qualitative, analytical-interpretive methodology. The analysis is conducted through a close, stanza-by-stanza reading of the poem, meticulously examining its linguistic, semiotic, and discursive elements. The study scrutinizes grammatical structures, symbolic oppositions, and intertextual references to demonstrate how meaning becomes unstable and is constantly deferred and reproduced within the text. This approach focuses on uncovering the internal workings of the poem’s language and how it actively resists a singular, authoritative reading, thereby supporting the core hypothesis that the poem’s polyphonic language and the decentering of meaning serve to dismantle structures of power, command, and salvation.
Main Findings, Results, and Discussion
The analysis yielded several key findings that support the central hypothesis. The first finding is that the poem’s recurrent imperative structures, such as “Hurry, Naseri!” and “Whip him!”, function as tools of a violent discourse, yet their constant repetition paradoxically erodes their meaning, turning them into empty, echoing phrases. A second finding is that Naseri’s silence is not a lack of meaning but a complex, deconstructive act of resistance. His voice, though absent, acts as a “trace” of meaning that subverts the dominant discourse. A third key finding is that the poem’s use of contradictory symbols—including the “crown of thorns,” “proud swan,” and “red rope”—resists fixed interpretation, constantly oscillating between opposing meanings. A fourth finding reveals that the spectators’ discourse constructs Naseri’s identity as a fragile, externally defined structure, thereby naturalizing the violence inflicted upon him. Finally, the analysis shows that the character of Lazarus, rather than symbolizing salvation, acts as an intertextual sign that subverts the very notion of a transcendent savior, underscoring the absence of a fixed, ultimate meaning.
The findings of this study collectively demonstrate that “The Death of Naseri” is not a straightforward narrative but a dynamic and open-ended text. The erosion of meaning through repeated commands, the profound signification of silence, and the constant slippage of symbols all serve to challenge the reader’s expectation of a clear, stable message. This discursive instability is the poem’s primary function, as it deconstructs the traditional relationship between language and power. The study shows how the spectators’ judgments and the absence of a savior figure in Lazarus dismantle structures of authority and salvation, leaving the reader in a space of interpretive uncertainty. The poem’s fragmented, polyphonic structure denies a single, central perspective, thereby aligning with Derrida’s concept of the decentered text and ultimately revealing a new understanding of how language can operate as a force of liberation and resistance against oppressive systems.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this article confirms that through a deconstructive reading, “The Death of Naseri” transcends its apparent narrative of suffering to become a profound exploration of the fragility of meaning in poetic language. By dismantling classical narrative and fixed dichotomies through a polyphonic discursive structure, the poem reveals that meaning is not an inherent property of words but a constant, deferred process of construction and deconstruction. The shifting of subject positions, the suspension of time, and the refusal of speech lead to a renewed understanding of the intricate relationship between language and power, meaning, and identity. The study establishes that Shamlu’s masterpiece is not merely a work of protest poetry but a deconstructive text that critically examines the very mechanisms by which meaning and authority are produced and subverted.
Alireza Nabilou; Atefe Saleh
Abstract
Persian literature encompasses works with diverse themes; however, despite this richness, cinematic adaptations of literary works in Iranian cinema are significantly fewer compared to global cinema. The aim of research is to discover the reasons behind filmmakers' selection of these limited literary ...
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Persian literature encompasses works with diverse themes; however, despite this richness, cinematic adaptations of literary works in Iranian cinema are significantly fewer compared to global cinema. The aim of research is to discover the reasons behind filmmakers' selection of these limited literary works, in order to answer the question of what common characteristics the stories chosen by Iranian directors possess. To arrive at this answer, using a descriptive-analytical method based on the collection and compilation of information, three stories by Gholam-Hossein Saedi "The Cow," "The Trash Can," and "Tranquility in the Presence of Others" which have been adapted by two Iranian directors, were selected. Based on Daniel Chandler's semiotic theory, the text of the stories was studied and analyzed, as this theory addresses various dimensions of the literary work from three perspectives: social, textual, and interpretative. The research results indicate that the three adapted stories by Gholam-Hossein Saedi, despite their differences, share common signs, especially within the category of social codes. These signs include identity transformation, confusion, helplessness and despair, a dark atmosphere, unfavorable social conditions, and dissatisfaction and malaise among the story's characters. These shared social signs reflect the social conditions of the 1960s and 1970s, suggesting that the reason for their selection by these two directors was their concern for contemporary issues. Furthermore, the shared social signs in the two stories "The Cow" and "The Trash Can," which were selected by Mehrjoui, have a higher frequency compared to the story "Tranquility in the Presence of Others."
Hossein Taheri
Abstract
Abstract
The concept of tajalli (theophany) occupies a central position in Islamic mysticism, particularly in the writings of Ruzbehan Baqli Shirazi. This study explores the semantic and symbolic dimensions of tajalli by examining its compound forms across multiple domains of mystical ...
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Abstract
The concept of tajalli (theophany) occupies a central position in Islamic mysticism, particularly in the writings of Ruzbehan Baqli Shirazi. This study explores the semantic and symbolic dimensions of tajalli by examining its compound forms across multiple domains of mystical discourse. Two primary types of combinations are identified: conceptual combinations, which link tajalli with specific mystical terms (e.g., tajalli of eternity, essence, or attributes); and metaphorical or simile-based combinations, wherein tajalli is associated with elements of nature, human figures, or aesthetic imagery. The research employs a multidisciplinary interpretive framework, drawing on Paul Ricoeur’s hermeneutics, Henry Corbin’s imaginal ontology, and Mircea Eliade’s phenomenology of myth, to uncover both the structural coherence and symbolic depth of Ruzbehan’s mystical language. The findings reveal that the recurring metaphorical patterns of tajalli function as hermeneutical keys, mediating between metaphysical doctrines and lived spiritual experience. In this way, Ruzbehan’s discourse on tajalli not only reflects the metaphysical foundations of Islamic mysticism but also demonstrates the dynamic interplay among language, imagination, and mystical experience.
1.Introduction
The notion of tajalli—theophanic manifestation—constitutes one of the most intricate and generative concepts in Islamic mysticism, its imaginative potential nowhere more vividly realized than in the works of Ruzbehan Baqli Shirazi. His Abhar al-ashiqin and Sharh-e Shat_hiyyat display an exceptional density of compound expressions in which tajalli is conjoined either with metaphysical abstractions or with highly concrete, imagistic elements. While previous scholarship has explored Ruzbehan’s symbolic language in broad terms, little attention has been given to the linguistic mechanisms through which tajalli is semantically amplified, dramatized, and rendered experientially intelligible. This study addresses that gap. It proposes that the diverse configurations of tajalli—ranging from “theophany of eternity” to “the bridal theophany,” “the whirlwind of theophany,” or “the sunlight of theophany”—constitute a coherent symbolic field. This field mediates between doctrinal metaphysics and the inner, lived phenomenology of mystical experience. To illuminate this field, the study mobilizes three complementary theoretical lenses: Paul Ricoeur’s hermeneutics of metaphor and semantic innovation, Henry Corbin’s ontology of the imaginal world (alam al-mithal), and Mircea Eliade’s phenomenology of sacred manifestation. Through these perspectives, the research aims to demonstrate how Ruzbehan transforms tajalli from a doctrinal term into a dynamic linguistic event that reconfigures spiritual meaning.
Methodology
The research adopts a qualitative, interpretive strategy designed to bridge textual analysis with phenomenological and hermeneutical theory. First, all compound expressions containing the term tajalli were extracted from the two primary texts. These expressions were subsequently sorted into two main categories: (1) conceptual combinations, in which tajalli is conjoined with abstract theological notions (e.g., essence, eternity, divine attributes); and (2) metaphorical or imagistic combinations, where tajalli appears alongside natural phenomena, aesthetic forms, bodily or human figures, or cosmological motifs.
Each selected expression was then subjected to a three-step analytic procedure: 1. Hermeneutic analysis (Ricoeur): This step involves tracing how the juxtaposition of tajalli with a concept or concrete image produces a semantic tension or deviation from ordinary usage, thereby activating what Ricoeur terms the “living metaphor.” It examines how the compound displaces literal meaning and creates an expanded semantic horizon. 2. Phenomenological analysis (Eliade): This step interprets each expression as the representation of a sacred event that interrupts ordinary temporality or spatiality. Special attention is given to how Ruzbehan’s compounds encode a rupture in the profane order and articulate the emergence of a sacred presence. 3. Ontological analysis (Corbin): This step situates each figurative expression within Corbin’s notion of the imaginal realm, where visionary forms disclose spiritual realities inaccessible to discursive reasoning. It clarifies the symbolic consistency and ontological status of each compound.
Results and Discussion
The analysis demonstrates that Ruzbehan’s combinations of tajalli are far from arbitrary. Instead, they follow identifiable symbolic trajectories that elucidate both the structure of his mystical worldview and the experiential logic of his language.
First, conceptual compounds highlight the metaphysical scaffolding of Ruzbehan’s thought. Expressions such as “theophany of eternity” or “theophany of essential unity” perform a semantic condensation: they bind an abstract metaphysical principle to a dynamic act of manifestation. Ricoeur’s model illustrates that these compounds produce shifts in meaning by forcing abstract nouns into a dramatic, event-like frame. In doing so, they express the paradoxical simultaneity of divine transcendence and immanent epiphany.
Second, metaphorical combinations—such as the “whirlwind of theophany,” “the bride of theophany,” or “the sunlight of theophany”—illuminate the imaginative architecture of Ruzbehan’s mysticism. Here, Eliade’s perspective reveals that each metaphor encodes a specific mode of the sacred’s irruption: the whirlwind marks a violent rupture, the bride signifies a relational and initiatory encounter, and sunlight denotes a luminous unveiling. These metaphors thus map a spectrum of mystical experiences, ranging from ecstatic terror to intimate union.
Third, Corbin’s imaginal ontology clarifies why Ruzbehan’s imagery does not collapse into mere poetic ornamentation. Each compound functions as a symbolic body in the imaginal world, mediating between sensory language and suprasensory reality. The metaphors acquire ontological density: the whirlwind becomes a mode of visionary perception; the bride is personified as a theophanic form; sunlight transforms into a luminous substance of the imaginal realm. In this sense, Ruzbehan’s language does not merely describe mystical experience—it constitutes it.
Conclusion
This study demonstrates that the language of tajalli in Ruzbehan Shirazi’s writings represents a deliberate and highly structured symbolic system. By analyzing the compound expressions through the integrated lenses of Ricoeur, Corbin, and Eliade, the research reveals that tajalli functions not only as a doctrinal concept but as a generative linguistic act that reshapes the boundaries of meaning, image, and spiritual perception. The conceptual combinations clarify the metaphysical foundations of his mysticism, while the metaphorical combinations disclose the experiential and imaginative modalities through which the sacred becomes manifest. Ultimately, the study underscores that Ruzbehan’s discourse on tajalli represents a sophisticated interplay between thought and image—one that transforms language into an instrument of mystical insight.
seyyedmehdi tabatabaei
Abstract
Abstract
observations to inform their imagery and thematic creations. Consequently, letters and words are employed in Persian literature not merely as linguistic components but as elements instrumental in forming images and creating themes. The quality and manner of abstractly using linguistic elements ...
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Abstract
observations to inform their imagery and thematic creations. Consequently, letters and words are employed in Persian literature not merely as linguistic components but as elements instrumental in forming images and creating themes. The quality and manner of abstractly using linguistic elements are directly related to the skill of individual poets and writers. Among these, Mirza Abdolqader Bidel, a prominent poet of the Indian Style, both adopted methods from his predecessors and introduced unique innovations in this domain. This research employs a descriptive-analytical method to explore these aspects. The findings indicate that Bidel utilized four methods for the abstract application of linguistic elements: visual-imagistic, phonetic, structural, and personification-based. This abstract application of letters, words, and their combinations in Bidel’s poetry stems from his perception of language as a living and flexible medium. Through this approach, certain linguistic elements are transformed into visual categories. Furthermore, profound semantic shifts occur in some words through phonetic and structural alterations. Finally, by personifying letters and words, Bidel conveys intricate mystical concepts to the audience, using specific alphabet letters as multi-dimensional symbols.
Introduction
The letters of the alphabet are typically considered the fundamental units of words; however, their significance and role in literary language extend beyond this basic function. Persian poets have harnessed other capacities of these letters in their verse. While some of these capacities have been identified and analyzed within the framework of verbal literary devices, others remain underexplored, lacking organized research.
One notable capacity that poets have recognized is the visual form of letters, which they have employed to convey specific meanings. This application has, in turn, opened aesthetic horizons in poetry, facilitating the discovery of new connections and the formation of unique imagery that initially appears unconventional. In this context, letters acquire a dual function, becoming crucial tools in literary creation. Such poetic techniques are also regarded as a form of norm-breaking and defamiliarization.
This research aims to examine how alphabet letters and words are utilized in the Divan of Ghazals by Mirza Abdolqader Bidel. Beyond extracting and presenting patterns of this method's application, it seeks to help elucidate the conceptual complexities within several couplets.
Literature Review
Research on this topic has not extensively focused on the Indian Style (Sabk-e Hendi) of poetry; consequently, no specific studies have been conducted on the ghazals of Mirza Abdolqader Bidel in this context. Among the limited existing studies, two focused on the poetry of Khaqani and Sanai, and another article did not extend beyond the era of Hafez. Thus, no research addressing this topic is observed within the realm of Indian Style poets. Furthermore, the current research significantly differs from other studies on this subject regarding the diversity and classification of its materials.
Research Method
This academic research employs an analytical-descriptive method to investigate Abdolqader Bidel’s techniques in utilizing the visual form of letters and words for thematic development and imagery in his poems. The statistical population of the research encompasses the rich tradition of Persian poetry and literature, with a specific focus on Bidel’s Divan of Ghazals. Library resources were used for data collection.
Findings and Discussion
The abstract application of alphabet letters and their utilization for imagery and thematic creation in poetry constitutes one of the oldest poetic techniques. In the works of some accomplished poets, its scope extends to words and poetic compounds. This type of application refers to the use of letters, words, and compounds outside their conventional and abstract domain, transforming these categories from mere signs conveying fixed meanings into living, dynamic, and sentient elements. Depending on the context, these elements can assume new roles and meanings.
Through abstract application, these elements retain their stereotypical function while acquiring a new identity. This identity positions them as malleable materials for the poet to use in their imagery and thematic creation. The resulting image or theme possesses an additional meaning, albeit independent of the linguistic system.
Mirza Abdolqader Bidel, as a preeminent poet of the Indian Style, employed four general methods for the abstract application of letters and words:
Visual-Pictorial Techniques
Phonetic Techniques
Structural Techniques
Personification-Based Techniques
Conclusion
The abstract application of letters, words, and compounds in the poetry of Mirza Abdolqader Bidel stems from his engagement with language as a living and flexible substance. Based on this approach, three significant metamorphoses occur in his poetry:
Transformation of linguistic elements into a visual category: In these instances, poetry approaches painting, and the letters of the alphabet function more as schematics of a mental image than as linguistic units.
Creation of profound semantic shifts through phonetic and structural changes: This method sometimes focuses on the pronunciation of two words, leading to their reinterpretation or substitution; at other times, it uses the structure of two words as the foundation for thematic creation.
Animation of letters and words and the symbolic use of certain letters: By animating alphabet letters and words, the poet transforms language from a set of rigid rules into a vibrant artistic workshop where each word possesses unique dynamism and flexibility. His further innovation lies in transforming alphabet letters into multi-dimensional symbols capable of conveying profound mystical concepts to his audience.
Mahdi Gharavi; Abbasali vafaei
Abstract
Abstract
Syntactic and musical structures are two of the most significant stylistic features of any literary text, as they form the foundation for its rhythm, linguistic melody, and semantic organization. Within this framework, Mantiq al-'Ushshaq by Ohadi Maraghei stands out as a prominent ...
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Abstract
Syntactic and musical structures are two of the most significant stylistic features of any literary text, as they form the foundation for its rhythm, linguistic melody, and semantic organization. Within this framework, Mantiq al-'Ushshaq by Ohadi Maraghei stands out as a prominent example where the arrangement of syntactic components and their relationship with the musicality of language are distinctly manifested. One of the most remarkable stylistic traits of this poem is the poet's avoidance of excessive use of ezafe constructions—an inclination reflected not only at the semantic and syntactic levels but also in the text's musical dimension. Adopting an integrative approach that combines structural and cognitive stylistics, and employing a descriptive-analytical method, this study examines the implications of this stylistic feature. From a structural perspective, the reduction of ezafe constructions simplifies syntactic-semantic relations, increases the frequency of balanced sentences, and contributes to a stable internal order within the text. From a cognitive perspective, this tendency directly aligns with the principle of linguistic economy and the reduction of the reader's processing load, thereby enhancing semantic transparency and conceptual accessibility. The findings reveal that Ohadi's avoidance of ezafe constructions not only enhances linguistic clarity and cohesion but also plays a crucial role in establishing a consistent rhythmic-musical pattern and increasing the likelihood of syntactic balance. Thus, the poet's style emerges as the outcome of a dynamic interaction among syntactic, cognitive, and phonological factors.
Introduction
The style of a literary work, as the artistic signature of its creator, emerges from multiple layers, among which syntactic structure and verbal musicality are fundamental and highly influential. These two layers not only form the backbone of the text's internal rhythm and cadence but also organize its semantic structure. Within the realm of classical Persian literature, the romantic epic Mantiq al-'Ushshaq by Ohadi Maraghei stands out as a prominent example in which the artful arrangement of syntactic elements and their interplay with the musicality of the verse create a distinctive aesthetic effect. One of the most salient stylistic features of this work is its tendency to avoid the extensive use of optional syntactic constructions. This stylistic preference, rooted in the poet's conscious or unconscious choices, manifests not only at the semantic and grammatical levels but also prominently in the musical and cognitive dimensions of the text.
The main research question of this study is: How does this reduction in the frequency of optional syntactic constructions affect three key aspects:
The establishment of syntactic balance within sentence structures?
The formation of musical cohesion and fluent rhythm in the verse?
The reduction of cognitive load on the reader during text comprehension?
Accordingly, the primary aim of this article is to analyze the implications of this stylistic feature at both the structural and cognitive levels, addressing a clear research gap concerning the systematic relationship between linguistic form and cognitive processing in classical Persian texts. This study seeks to provide a novel framework for the stylistic reading of classical works, grounded in insights from cognitive and structural linguistics.
Literature Review
Previous studies in corpus linguistics and cognitive linguistics have well established the role of indicators such as dependency distance in measuring language processing complexity. Foundational research (e.g., Ferrer-i-Cancho, 2015, 2022; Liu et al., 2017) has shown that minimizing dependency distance is a cognitive universal principle aligned with working memory constraints and language economy. Comparative studies (e.g., Hafez et al., 2024; Jin & Liu, 2022) have further confirmed this tendency even in languages with free word order. However, a clear research gap exists regarding the direct relationship between the reduction of optional syntactic constructions (as a factor that increases dependency distance) and its stylistic consequences in Persian literary texts. This study aims to fill this gap, focusing on a classical Persian text.
Methodology
This study was conducted using an integrative (structural-cognitive) approach and employing a descriptive-analytical method. Data were randomly collected from the epic Mantiq al-'Ushshaq and compared with samples from Nezami's Khosrow and Shirin and Wahshi Bafqi's Shirin and Farhad (matched in meter with the hazaj-e mosaddas mahzuf), as well as selected ghazals from Hafez and the Divan of Shams. The data analysis was carried out on two levels:
Structural level: Examination of the frequency of optional syntactic constructions and assessment of syntactic balance based on the uniformity of constituents and their order across the two hemistiches.
Cognitive level: Explanation of the stylistic implications with reference to the theoretical framework of Production-Distribution-Comprehension (PDC) and principles such as "Ease-First" and "Plan-Reuse."
Analysis and Discussion
Quantitative findings clearly demonstrated an inverse relationship between the frequency of optional/extra constructions and the degree of syntactic balance. In the selected samples of Mantiq al-'Ushshaq, the frequency of extra constructions (8 and 6 instances) was significantly lower than in Khosrow and Shirin (15 and 10 instances) and Shirin and Farhad (15 and 14 instances).
In contrast, the percentage of syntactic balance in Mantiq al-'Ushshaq (45% and 35%) was considerably higher than in the other two epics (22% and 15% for Nezami; 13% and 11% for Wahshi). This pattern was also repeated in a comparison of Hafez's ghazals and the Divan of Shams.
Structural effect: Reducing extra constructions pushes the poet toward using simpler and more repetitive syntactic alternatives (such as subordinate clauses and complements), which in turn increases the likelihood of structural repetition and syntactic balance.
Cognitive effect: From the perspective of the PDC framework, reducing extra constructions lowers processing load by minimizing syntactic dependency distance and reducing semantic ambiguity. This aligns with the cognitive principles of ease-first (using simpler, more accessible elements) and plan reuse (repeating familiar syntactic structures), ultimately facilitating fluency and comprehension.
Musical effect: Replacing heavy extra constructions with broader but balanced structures produces a smoother, more fluid, and speech-like rhythm in poetry, thereby enhancing the internal musicality of the text.
Conclusion
The findings of this study indicate that the deliberate or unconscious reduction of extra constructions in Ohadi Maraghei's Mantiq al-'Ushshaq represents a key stylistic strategy that, in a dynamic interplay, contributes both to syntactic balance and musical cohesion, while significantly reducing the cognitive processing load for the reader. This tendency can be seen as a reflection of Ohadi's "mental style," in which the direct expression of emotion and the facilitation of the reader's experience take precedence over the display of linguistic complexity. This study offers a novel framework for analyzing the relationship between linguistic form and cognitive processing in classical Persian texts and highlights the attenuated role of extra constructions as a factor enhancing both cognitive efficiency and stylistic aesthetics.
Reyhaneh Davoudi; Mohammad Behnamfar
Abstract
Abstract
Communication encompasses both verbal and nonverbal modalities. Within nonverbal communication, which possesses a broad scope and significantly greater influence than verbal communication, various manifestations of body language are evident. The present study, conducted through library research ...
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Abstract
Communication encompasses both verbal and nonverbal modalities. Within nonverbal communication, which possesses a broad scope and significantly greater influence than verbal communication, various manifestations of body language are evident. The present study, conducted through library research and employing a descriptive-analytical method, aimed to identify and extract specific elements of nonverbal communication in Khaqani's ghazaliyat. Furthermore, it sought to decipher the hidden messages and meanings the poet intended to convey through body language and to ascertain the nature of the relationship between the two principal characters of the ghazaliyat: the lover and the beloved. The research findings indicate extensive and diverse use of body language in Khaqani's ghazaliyat. Among the various aspects of body language, the poet paid particular attention to eye expressions (emphasizing crying), nonverbal gestures (emphasizing sighing), and lip expressions (emphasizing laughing and kissing). Approximately 65% of the nonverbal communication between the lover and the beloved in the ghazaliyat is dedicated to these three areas. Additionally, the use of combined movements and their impressive diversity (22 modes conveying 45 meanings), alongside various facial expressions and particular attention to facial color, are notable in Khaqani's ghazaliyat. The results reveal that the use of body language in Khaqani's ghazaliyat often signifies the lover's distance from the beloved or the beloved's refusal to engage in verbal communication with the lover.
Introduction
Body language, a fundamental component of human communication, conveys extensive information about emotions, feelings, and relationships alongside speech. In lyric poetry, particularly the Persian ghazal, this nonverbal layer assumes particular importance because the amorous experience often unfolds in a context where direct dialogue between the lover and beloved is either impossible or intentionally delayed. Under such circumstances, gaze, gesture, facial expression, and voice become meaningful and function as substitutes for speech. This study aims to analyze the functions and manifestations of body language and nonverbal communication in the ghazals of Khaqani.
The central research problem involves identifying the semiotic system of nonverbal messages exchanged between the lover and beloved in Khaqani’s poetry, as well as elucidating the role of these messages in shaping themes and emotional relations within the poems. Given that human communication is constructed not only through spoken language but also through bodily and vocal signs, the working hypothesis posits that a significant portion of the amorous discourse in Khaqani’s ghazal is conveyed not through explicit statements but through movements, bodily states, and nonverbal cues. This domain, therefore, may contribute to a more precise reading of the poems and reveal modes of emotional interaction between the amorous figures.
Method
This research employs a descriptive-analytical method based on a comprehensive reading of Khaqani’s ghazals and the identification of all instances where bodily action or physical state serves as a vehicle of meaning. Only examples were selected where a human agent performed an act interpretable within the realm of nonverbal communication. The data were categorized according to body part, type of movement or posture, and implied meaning. The frequency of each category was examined to determine dominant patterns, semiotic relations, and the role of each group in constructing the emotional atmosphere of the poems. The final analysis was conducted contextually: the meaning and implication of each bodily movement or posture were interpreted in relation to the poem’s amorous situation and its vertical structure, rather than as isolated units. This method was adopted to recognize the general pattern of body language in Khaqani and to demonstrate its contribution to the transmission of feeling and the dynamics of amorous interaction within his ghazals.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical foundation of this research is based on Barbara Korte’s perspective on body language as a semiotic system. In this approach, facial expressions, limb movements, and nonverbal vocalizations are considered meaningful carriers through which one may infer the emotional state and type of interaction between participants. This perspective is particularly compatible with the structure of the Persian ghazal, given that the beloved frequently occupies a position from which direct speech is withheld. The body thus enters the field as a substitute for verbal language. Within this framework, bodily behavior in poetry is regarded as a form of speech; every movement or posture is therefore read as a sign that produces meaning within the context of the ghazal and contributes to the construction and transmission of emotional experience.
Discussion and Analysis
The findings indicate that body language functions as a crucial element of meaning in Khaqani’s ghazals. The most frequent occurrences involve the eyes, which is unsurprising, as the eye is traditionally conceived as the mirror of emotion. Crying appears as one of the most significant emotional signs, though its meaning is far from uniform: at times it expresses grief, at others longing or joy. Vocal nonverbal expressions rank second in importance. Sighing, lamentation, shouting, or wailing have primarily served as instruments for expressing sorrow while simultaneously bridging the gap between amorous relation and direct speech. Voice elevates emotion from a muted state to a performative level, animating the ghazal’s space.
The lips and mouth also play a vivid role. Laughter and kissing may signify kindness and union, seduction, joy, mockery, or devotion. This polysemy enables the representation of the complex and shifting relationship between the lover and beloved. Beyond these, there is considerable variety in composite gestures—movements produced by the simultaneous action of multiple body parts—such as biting the lip, placing the head on the feet, holding a finger between the teeth, or grasping a lock of hair. These gestures are theatrical, engaging the reader by prompting mental visualization of the scene.
From a thematic perspective, body language is especially employed to express separation from the beloved and the sorrow and anguish resulting from distance. In many poems, the beloved, instead of speaking, communicates only through body language: refusing to look, veiling the face, or turning away. These behaviors create emotional distancing, which mirrors the essence of the Persian ghazal—an amorous dynamic in which union is not guaranteed, and desire and separation continuously structure the relationship.
Conclusion
The study of body language in Khaqani’s ghazals demonstrates that the poet extensively utilized the body's capacity as an artistic expression. Eyes, nonverbal vocalizations, lips, facial expression, and combined movements are all organized to convey meaning without explicit verbal expression. The diversity of gestures and the plurality of meanings attest to Khaqani’s skill as an image-maker who constructs a theatrical structure in his poetry and invites the audience into active participation. His ghazal is a space where the body speaks.
Body language functions both as a medium for expressing feeling and as a device for marking emotional distance. This research shows that attention to bodily signs and nonverbal elements deepens our understanding of the lover–beloved relationship and clarifies Khaqani’s visual and imaginative capacities in the ghazal. Such an approach may also prove productive for the study of other poets, since the beloved’s bodily behavior in Khaqani and the distancing mode of amorous interaction he represents have been widely institutionalized within the broader tradition of the Persian ghazal.
Alireza Asadi
Abstract
Abstract
Many contemporary literary scholars concur that literature is fundamentally defined by its form; it is this formal quality that distinguishes literary works from non-literary ones. Accordingly, literary criticism, the history of literary evolution, and aesthetic analysis are deeply rooted in ...
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Abstract
Many contemporary literary scholars concur that literature is fundamentally defined by its form; it is this formal quality that distinguishes literary works from non-literary ones. Accordingly, literary criticism, the history of literary evolution, and aesthetic analysis are deeply rooted in the study of form. However, in traditional Persian poetry scholarship, despite numerous efforts to analyze individual formal elements or artistic structures, the concept of "form" as a foundational aspect of poetry has often been overlooked. This oversight has led to critical gaps in literary studies in Iran and hindered the scientific development of Persian poetic discourse. This study, grounded in the theoretical framework of Polish aesthetician Wladyslaw Tatarkiewicz, aims to trace the evolution of poetic form in Persian literature up to the modernist shift introduced by Nima Yushij. By applying Tatarkiewicz’s classification of artistic forms to the history of Persian poetry, this research reveals that the formal transformations in Persian verse align remarkably well with his stages of form development. The findings suggest that a formalist perspective can offer new insights into the aesthetic trajectory of Persian poetry. This article explores the evolution of poetic form in Persian literature from classical periods to the modern era of Nima Yushij, drawing on the aesthetic and formalist theories of the Polish philosopher Wladyslaw Tatarkiewicz. The study is grounded in the premise—widely accepted among literary critics and theorists today—that literature is essentially form, and that the distinction between literary and non-literary texts lies in their formal qualities. Accordingly, understanding literature, its history, and its criticism is inseparable from understanding the evolution of literary form.
Introduction
Despite the meticulous attention paid to poetic devices such as meter, rhyme, and imagery in traditional Persian literary studies, the concept of “form” as a fundamental and autonomous component of poetry has often been neglected. This oversight has led to foundational shortcomings in Persian literary criticism and limited its influence on the evolution of Persian poetry. The present study seeks to address this gap by applying Tatarkiewicz’s comprehensive typology of artistic form to Persian poetry, aiming to demonstrate that the historical development of Persian poetry can be meaningfully analyzed through the lens of formal transformation.
Literature Review
The article reviews both classical and modern Persian literary criticism. While early theorists such as Abd al-Qahir al-Jurjani touched upon aspects of form in their theories of “nazm” (order), and modern scholars like Shafi’i Kadkani and Reza Baraheni have analyzed poetic elements in historical or critical contexts, a systematic theory of form as an independent and dynamic concept remains underdeveloped. Notably, this article is the first to offer a comparative application of Tatarkiewicz’s theory to Persian literary history.
Methodology
The research adopts a descriptive-analytical method with a theoretical orientation. It begins by outlining Tatarkiewicz’s definitions and classifications of form, then applies this framework to selected examples from classical Persian poetry through to the modernist innovations of Nima Yushij. The goal is to assess the compatibility of Persian poetic forms with Tatarkiewicz’s historical model of artistic form. The analysis focuses on aesthetic and structural features to trace a systematic evolution of poetic form in Persian literature.
Tatarkiewicz’s Theory of Form
In his seminal work History of Six Ideas, Tatarkiewicz identifies five primary and several secondary meanings of “form” in the history of Western aesthetics:
Form A: The arrangement of parts into a unified whole—e.g., architectural symmetry or musical harmony.
Form B: The sensory appearance of an object, especially in literature, where sound and rhythm are distinguished from meaning.
Form C: The boundary or outline of an object, relevant to visual arts.
Form D: The essence or defining nature of a thing, as in Aristotelian metaphysics.
Form E: The mental framework imposed by the human mind to perceive external reality, rooted in Kantian philosophy.
Additional forms include:
Form G: Conventional structural templates (e.g., poetic meters and genres).
Form H: Styles or types within a given art form.
Form K: Artist-created forms that are neither natural nor necessary but intentionally constructed.
Form L: Forms associated with creativity, spontaneity, and psychological perception, especially in modern art.
Tatarkiewicz’s model suggests a historical shift from external, metaphysical conceptions of form (pre-Kantian) to internal, cognitive ones (post-Kantian), marking a philosophical turning point in the understanding of art and beauty.
Application to Persian Poetry
The article demonstrates that Persian poetry, particularly in its classical phase, aligns closely with Form A, where meter, rhyme, and rhetorical balance reflect mathematical harmony. Over time, especially in the Indian style (sabk-e Hendi), poetic form becomes increasingly ornate and artificial, approaching what Tatarkiewicz calls “pure form.”
Elements of Form D (essence) and Form B (sensory form) are evident in mystical and philosophical poetry, where the beauty of language is tied to spiritual meaning. With the advent of Nima Yushij’s modernist poetry, traditional symmetrical meters give way to freer, more organic structures. This shift corresponds to Form E, where the poet’s subjective perception and mental constructs shape the poem’s form.
Nima’s poetry marks a departure from classical metrics and introduces a new geometry of poetic structure, emphasizing individual experience and natural rhythm. This transformation reflects a broader modernist tendency to redefine form as a product of creative consciousness rather than inherited convention.
Conclusion
The study concludes that the evolution of Persian poetry can be effectively interpreted through Tatarkiewicz’s typology of form. Each major phase of Persian poetic history corresponds to one or more of his defined forms, illustrating a parallel between the development of Persian literary aesthetics and broader philosophical shifts in the understanding of form. This alignment not only validates Tatarkiewicz’s framework but also offers a fresh lens for re-evaluating Persian literary history through a formalist perspective.
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