Literary Language Research Journal

Abstract Persian literary works encompass a diverse range of themes; however, cinematic adaptations of these works are significantly less prevalent in Iranian cinema compared to global cinema. Gholam-Hossein Saedi is a prominent writer whose three stories have garnered directorial attention, leading to film adaptations. This research endeavors to determine the shared semiotic elements within these three stories that attracted directors. Employing a descriptive-analytical methodology based on information compiled from Saedi's three stories—"Gav" (The Cow), "Ashghalduni" (The Dump), and "Aramesh dar Hozur-e Digaran" (Peace in the Presence of Others)—which were adapted by two Iranian directors, this study analyzes them through Daniel Chandler's theory of semiotics. Chandler's theory examines various dimensions of literary works from social, textual, and interpretive perspectives. The research findings indicate that these three stories, despite their narrative differences, share common semiotic signs, particularly within the category of social codes. These signs include the metamorphosis of the main character's identity, the confusion, helplessness, and despair of modern individuals, the pervasive dark atmosphere and unfavorable social conditions, and the profound dissatisfaction and malaise experienced by the characters. The shared social signs in these stories reflect the socio-political conditions in Iran during the 1960s and 1970s. This suggests that the directors' selection of these works stemmed from their engagement with contemporary issues and the human condition during the transition from tradition to modernity. Furthermore, the frequency of shared social signs in "Gav" and "Ashghalduni" (selected by Mehrjui) is notably higher compared to "Aramesh dar Hozur-e Digaran" (selected by Taqva'i). Introduction A review of semiotic theories reveals that Daniel Chandler's classification of codes is particularly well-suited for this research. Consequently, the three aforementioned stories will be analyzed using Chandler's semiotic theory to identify common signs. Daniel Chandler categorizes codes and signs into three distinct groups—social codes, textual codes, and interpretive codes—based on the "context of media, communications, and cultural studies." Materials and Methods This research is fundamental in nature, employing a descriptive-analytical method based on information collection and compilation. Initially, the theoretical foundations of the research were established, followed by the selection of Daniel Chandler's semiotic theory for the analysis of the stories. The application of Chandler's semiotic framework provides a distinct methodological and analytical contribution that extends beyond mere content description. In addition to describing and explaining narrative events, the objective of this research is to demonstrate how the systematic formation and repetition of signs occur within Saedi's three texts and to link this system to the socio-ideological context of the author's era. To avoid a solely interpretative approach to narrative elements, Daniel Chandler's theoretical structure was utilized. Discussion and Analysis Of the three films based on Saedi's stories, two—"Gav" (an adaptation of "The Cow" in 1968) and "Dayereh-ye Mina" (The Cycle, an adaptation of "Ashghalduni" (The Dump) in 1974)—were directed by Dariush Mehrjui. Conversely, "Aramesh dar Hozur-e Digaran" (Tranquility in the Presence of Others, an adaptation of "Aramesh dar Hozur-e Digaran" in 1970) was directed by Nasser Taqva'i. The stories will be examined across six categories derived from Chandler's theory. The first four categories pertain to social codes, while the final category, titled "Ideological Codes," relates to interpretive codes. These categories are: 6.1. Identity (Names and Titles) 6.2. Social Status (Occupation, Social Class, Education) 6.3. Traditions and Values (Culture, Customs, and Rituals) 6.4. Commodities (Objects, Household Items, Clothing, Food, etc.) 6.5. Textual Codes 6.6. Ideological Codes. Conclusion The research findings indicate that the three stories adapted from Gholam-Hossein Saedi's works, despite their individual differences, share common characteristics, particularly within the category of social codes. These shared signs include the metamorphosis of the main character's identity, the pervasive confusion, helplessness, and despair of modern individuals, the somber atmosphere and unfavorable social conditions, and the profound dissatisfaction and malaise experienced by the characters. The shared social signs in these stories reflect the socio-political conditions of the 1960s and 1970s. This suggests that the directors' rationale for selecting these works was their concern for contemporary societal issues and the human experience during the pivotal transition from traditional to modern paradigms.

Abstract Abstract
This study grounded in cognitive semantics and cognitive rhetoric, analyzes the artistic and conceptual roles of prepositions in Hafez’s sonnets. Linguistic data were drawn from Hafez’s Sonnets, edited by Khanlari (1987). The analysis focused on the preposition ba and related lexical items, examining them through Langacker’s (1987) radial category theory and Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980) conceptual metaphor theory. Results indicate that Hafez, by employing overlapping semantic networks, elevates prepositions from their syntactic function to rhetorical and metaphorical levels. Each motif independently contributes to the rhythm, allusions, and inner music of the ghazal. A meaningful connection between the physical perception of place and emotional and mystical experience is conveyed through these linguistic elements, a phenomenon understood as "sensory-emotional co-writing" from a cognitive linguistic perspective. In Hafez’s literary system, prepositions transcend a mere syntactic role; rather, like elements in a painting, they create a network of meaningful colors and lines. From a cognitive linguistic standpoint, the process of embodied perception is crucial: each ba acts as a bridge between sense and meaning, with its position transferred from the body to the soul. Through this function, prepositions in Hafez’s ghazal serve as the engine of rhetorical movement, facilitating the re-creation of mystical experience through sensory language.

Introduction

The Persian ghazal tradition offers fertile ground for analyzing how function words construct meaning. The preposition ba (“with”), often glossed as denoting accompaniment or instrumentality, emerges in Hafez’s poetry as a locus for experiential coupling—connecting persons, concepts, and affective states. Moving beyond classical grammar, cognitive linguistics treats ba as an active meaning-making resource. This article investigates the cognitive-semantic dimensions of ba, integrating Iranian scholarship with Western cognitive frameworks to examine its role in companionship, opposition, and mystical union within Hafez’s lyric economy.

Theoretical Framework

Cognitive linguistics posits that meaning arises from embodied experience, with schematic and frame-based conceptual organization.

Langacker’s (1987) radial network positions ba as a prototype-centered term whose core sense (physical co-presence) extends to abstract uses (association, union, opposition).
Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980) Conceptual Metaphor Theory explains ba’s extension from spatial “WITH” to social and affective domains (PARTNER, UNION).
Talmy’s (1983) image schemas (containment, alignment, path) anchor ba’s polysemy in spatial experience, motivating cognitive extensions.
Iranian linguists, such as Safavi (2003) and Rasekh-Mohand (2012), emphasize pragmatic, connotative, and spiritual dimensions, supporting the preposition’s centrality in meaning construction.


Methodology

A descriptive-analytical approach was employed, involving a close reading of selected ghazals from Hafez’s Divan. Instances of ba were isolated to identify patterns across companionship, conflict, separation, and mystical dialogue. Each example was examined for syntactic use, activated schemas, affective nuance, and rhetorical effect, then mapped within a radial semantic network. Image schemas were identified by analyzing ba’s collocation with nouns, pronouns, and phrases. Profiles of companionship, instrumentality, association, opposition, and union were modeled to track semantic extension.

Analysis and Discussion

4.1. Image-Schematic Level
Ba anchors entities in shared experiential fields. Companionship emerges via containment or alignment, producing protective co-presence. Union arises in lines invoking inseparable bonds or mystical fusion, transforming spatial links into metaphysical unity. Path and trajectory schemas structure ba’s role within journeys—physical, emotional, or spiritual.
4.2. Affective Level
Ba communicates warmth, trust, and solidarity (e.g., friendship, love, spiritual intimacy) or, conversely, rivalry and tension (e.g., opposition, longing). In Hafez’s ghazals, ba frequently indexes closeness with the beloved, inviting sensory and emotional engagement. In mystical registers, ba functions as a conduit for transcendence, expressing longing for union with the divine.
4.3. Rhetorical Level
Ba organizes poetic oppositions: it acts as a foil to separation and as a bridge to unity. Hafez uses it to alternate between worldly companionship and mystical union, adjusting stance, address, and voice. The preposition’s repetition and position within verses reinforce rhythmical and semantic continuity and intensify the ambiguity (iham) central to classical Persian lyricism.
4.4. Companionship and Instrumentality
Canonical passages often frame companionship—walking together, drinking together, lamenting together—where ba marks shared agency and activity. Instrumentality (“doing with”) often merges with companionship to highlight collaborative action or mutual experience.
4.5. Opposition
Ba may also signify contrast or rivalry; proximity in form highlights divergence in intention, dramatizing divides between appearance and reality, or desire and indifference.

6. Mystical Union

In many instances, ba signifies ontological fusion—erasing boundaries between seeker and beloved, or human and divine. Here, metaphoric “WITH” becomes existential alignment.

7. Pattern Overview

Ba’s polysemy is motivated and cognitively structured. It operates beyond a grammatical role, facilitating relational stance, affective resonance, and layered metaphor. Even in abstraction, traces of embodied spatial meaning persist, confirming Talmy’s (1983) thesis.

Conclusion

This cognitive-semantic analysis reveals ba as a central instrument in Hafez’s poetic meaning-making—a dynamic agent orchestrating multidimensional relations of companionship, opposition, and mystical union. Through the interplay of radial networks, conceptual metaphors, and image schemas, ba guides readers through complex affective and philosophical landscapes. The study affirms that prepositions, especially ba, are pivotal in cognitive poetics: they actively shape how meaning is produced, perceived, and interpreted in Persian ghazal. This interdisciplinary model encourages further research at the intersection of linguistics and literary analysis.

Abstract   Abstract The distinction between literary typology, especially in new literary forms, has consistently presented a significant challenge for researchers. Interdisciplinary approaches, particularly those based on Leech's Theory of Deviation, have been proposed to explain literary typology. Despite the importance of these efforts, notably the models advanced by Safavi and Hagh-shenas, their practical application encounters difficulties, especially in delineating the boundary between "Poetic Prose" and "Prose Poetry." The present study aims to offer a practical solution for analyzing literary texts and to complement existing theories. It employs a quantitative-qualitative approach to comparatively examine two texts: the poems of Seyyed Ali Salehi and the stories of Bijan Najdi. Critiquing prior models that primarily focused on Deviation, this research establishes a framework incorporating the elements of frequency, quality, and the hierarchy of Parallelism. The results indicate that along the prose-to-poetry continuum, texts are positioned according to their degree of Foregrounding. Najdi's stories, characterized by a high frequency of Deviation and a low frequency of Parallelism, tend toward the prose prototype at the continuum's end and are identified as Poetic Narrative Prose. Conversely, Salehi's poems exhibit a notable increase in the frequency and variety of Parallelism, creating a musical texture and clearly moving towards poetic characteristics. Ultimately, this research demonstrates that the increased frequency and quality of Parallelism, alongside Deviation, serve as a more precise criterion for explaining literary typology and a text's movement along the prose-to-poetry continuum. Introduction Distinguishing between "Poetic Narrative Prose" and "Prose Poetry" remains a fundamental challenge in literary linguistics. The emergence of modern hybrid forms, such as "Poetic Prose" and "Prose Poetry," has blurred traditional typological boundaries. This study seeks a linguistic explanation for why Bijan Najdi's works remain within prose boundaries despite their poetic qualities, while Seyyed Ali Salehi's poems advance toward the poetry prototype along the typological continuum. Furthermore, it aims to critique previous models and provide a practical framework for determining the precise position of any given text along the "prose-to-poetry" continuum. Theoretical Framework ​The theoretical foundation of this study is Geoffrey Leech’s theory of Foregrounding, which encompasses two primary processes: Deviation (the violation of linguistic norms) and Parallelism (the introduction of extra regularities). In the Iranian context, scholars such as Ali-Mohammad Hagh-shenas and Koorosh Safavi have adapted this theory to categorize literary typology. This research innovates by incorporating the variables of "frequency," "quality," and the "hierarchy of parallelism" to more accurately distinguish between poetic prose and prose poetry. Methodology This study employs a mixed-methods (quantitative and qualitative) approach within a comparative case study framework. The corpus includes Bijan Najdi’s short story collection, Yoozpalanghāni ke bā man davidehand (The Cheetahs Who Have Run with Me), and Seyyed Ali Salehi’s poetry collection, Mosallasat va Eshraq (Trigonometry and Intuitions). To ensure generalizability, approximately one-third of each work was randomly sampled. The unit of analysis for prose was defined as the "sentence/paragraph," while for poetry, it was the "line/stanza." Data were qualitatively extracted and subsequently quantified into statistical tables. Findings and Discussion A) Najdi’s Work Analysis reveals that Najdi’s text is foregrounded through significant semantic and functional deviation (narration/description). In these works, Deviation governs Parallelism, and due to the narrative nature and negligible frequency of musical symmetries, the text is classified as "Poetic Narrative Prose." Here, poeticism primarily serves to enhance the narrative quality. B) Salehi’s Work In Salehi’s poems, while deviation remains active, there is a notable increase in the frequency of Parallelism compared to Najdi’s work. This heightened frequency in musical and syntactic layers is the primary driver for the text's transition toward "Prose Poetry."   Diagram. Position of the studied texts on the prose-to-poetry typological continuum     Conclusion The findings indicate that the boundary between prose and poetry exists on a continuum determined by shifts in frequency. In Poetic Narrative Prose, deviation predominates to enrich the narrative. In Prose Poetry, although parallelism does not necessarily surpass deviation in absolute terms, its increased frequency relative to prose texts acts as a decisive factor, propelling the work toward the "Poetry Prototype." Thus, the fundamental distinction lies in the "shift in frequency proportions" between deviation and parallelism.

Abstract  
Abstract
Sentence classification often relies on the meaning, role, and function of sentences. An interrogative sentence, a type within this classification, is typically employed by a speaker with the intention of eliciting an answer, achieving rhetorical purposes, or fulfilling other functions. Such sentences manifest across diverse linguistic varieties. In traditional rhetoric, a question serving a purpose beyond a direct answer is termed a rhetorical question. Within linguistics, the roles of these sentences are explored in pragmatic semantics. This qualitative study aims to identify the purposes and functions of rhetorical questions in contemporary Persian prose. Twenty-five texts, including novels, stories, screenplays, newspapers, and non-fiction books, were examined to extract and categorize types of rhetorical questions. A total of 77 rhetorical purposes were identified from the texts, demonstrating greater diversity compared to those enumerated in traditional rhetoric texts. These purposes are organized into eight general categories: emotional questions, request-based questions, persuasive-motivational questions, confrontational-critical questions, emphatic-persuasive questions, evaluative-judgmental questions, communicative questions, and philosophical questions. The findings indicate that in contemporary written language, interrogative sentences hold a prominent presence with novel approaches across a range of texts. Based on this research's classification and the selection of diverse literary and non-literary texts, the most indirect functions of these sentences are found, in descending order, in the emphatic-persuasive, emotional, communicative, and confrontational-critical categories. This functional variety aligns with the content of the selected texts. The least frequent role of interrogative sentences is observed in the philosophical category, suggesting that the selected prose texts are primarily intended for a general audience.

Introduction

The sentence, as the largest and most complete unit of language, fully conveys a message and leaves no expectation of further continuation. The primary aim of every sentence is to transmit a message and meaning, which can be analyzed from various perspectives. Semantics is the scientific study of meaning in language, and such inquiry can only be achieved through research into different linguistic varieties. One branch of semantics is pragmatic semantics (pragmatics). Pragmatic semantics investigates meaning in the context of language use within the communication process among its speakers; in other words, it examines the meaning of utterances (Levinson, 1983; Yule, 1996).

Method

This study, employing a qualitative method supported by quantitative data, analyzes and describes the rhetorical questions under investigation. Purposeful samples were selected from contemporary Persian prose texts, and rhetorical questions were extracted from these texts. After identifying the intentions and functions of these questions, they were classified into related categories. In examining the purposes of rhetorical questions in 25 selected texts, 77 rhetorical intentions were identified and categorized into eight general groups: emotional, request-based, persuasive-motivational, confrontational-critical, evaluative-judgmental, communicative, emphatic-persuasive, and philosophical. In the present classification, however, questions were placed under the subcategory representing their strongest intention based on contextual factors.

Analysis and Discussion

In rhetoric, specifically within the branch of semantics, rhetorical questions are examined in the field of ma’ani (Abu al-Fadl, 2004; Hatami, 2008). In contemporary Persian prose texts, this type of question serves multiple purposes and functions, making it highly significant in influencing the audience. In this study, "intention" refers to a specific and particular purpose, whereas "function" denotes a broader category encompassing several intentions.

Functions and Purposes of Rhetorical Questions

The rhetorical purposes and aims extracted from the selected texts, particularly narrative works, reveal broader aspects of language use and sentence types. In this study, these purposes were classified into eight functional categories based on their meaning. These functions include: emotional questions, request-based questions, persuasive-motivational questions, confrontational-critical questions, emphatic-persuasive questions, evaluative-judgmental questions, communicative questions, and philosophical questions.

Conclusion

The interrogative sentence is a communicative means for addressing and making requests of the audience; it is not confined to a single linguistic variety, appearing in colloquial, scientific, and literary language alike. In contemporary prose texts, rhetorical questions have evolved beyond being merely a rhetorical device, becoming a tool for deeper communication between writers and their audience. This reflects a tendency toward indirect, multilayered, and thought-provoking expression. The diverse functions and multiple intentions of these questions distance the text from direct structures and activate the audience's thought and emotion in ways that simple declarative statements cannot. By creating tension within the text, stimulating the mind, and drawing the audience's attention, these questions arouse the reader's curiosity to grasp the intended meaning and purpose behind them.

Abstract Abstract The present research, adopting a Cognitive Linguistic approach and based on Lakoff and Johnson’s theory of conceptual metaphors, investigates the conceptualization of "positive and negative interpersonal interactions" in English, Farsi, and French. The research objectives include defining the degree of embodiment, investigating the role of image schemas, and examining the significance of lived experience in shaping meaning. The dataset comprises 60 idiomatic expressions across the subdomains of “annoyance and affection,” with 20 items from each of the three languages. Findings affirm the significant role of the “body” and the fundamental effect of speakers’ sensory-motor embodied experiences in metaphor formation. The high frequency of similar conceptual metaphors and identical image schemas across the three languages reflects the cross-cultural and universal nature of the “annoyance and affection” concepts as subdomains of "negative and positive interpersonal actions." Results confirm Lakoff’s (2012) claims regarding the role of primary human experiences in shaping basic moral metaphors. Moreover, the influence of the “environment and cultural context” on “embodied language” can be presented under the notion of “embodied culture” and “cultural identity.” The ancient civilization of Persia, its history of wars and resistances, and Persian mystical literature have oriented the surface structure of Farsi toward a higher degree of employing BALANCE and PART-WHOLE image schemas, inspiring a conservative analytical approach. The role of French Existentialism movements and the action-oriented culture of English-speaking communities are considered effective in the use of the PATH Schema and an agentive identity. The individual-oriented lifestyle of the Anglo-Saxons, predecessors of the English, elicits the SURFACE schema and more personal autonomy in its speakers. Introduction According to the theory of “embodiment” proposed by Lakoff and Johnson (1987), linguistic and cognitive structures stem from sensorimotor experience and human interaction with the world. As Johnson (2024) notes, “mind and body form a single union which constructs meaning through interaction with the environment.” Consider the following examples: the three moral-domain idioms “eating from someone’s hand,” “kas-i ra dar mošt dāštan = grasp somebody in one’s fist” (in Farsi), and “tenir qqn sous sa coupe = hold somebody under one’s cup” (in French) conceptualize the notion of “annoyance” through various images. English employs an individualistic, interactional control via the SURFACE schema; Farsi refers to severe physical control and oppression via the CONTAINMENT schema; and French conceptualizes power hierarchies of the French social and political system via the VERTICAL DIRECTION schema. Therefore, a cross-linguistic analysis of moral metaphors, such as these examples, can lead to a holistic interpretation of the effect of “environment” on “embodied language” to consolidate internationally, sometimes contradictory, linguistic expressions according to various “embodied cultures.” Grounded in the theory of embodied language, this study investigates how English, Persian, and French conceptualize moral notions such as “annoyance and affection” and what these conceptualizations reveal about the moral viewpoints of each culture. Literature Review The weakness of many domestic studies based on Lakoff and Johnson’s (1987) framework can be attributed to their restricting the scope of analysis to a mere decomposition of linguistic elements while overlooking the role of language sociology, culture, and environment in the formation of embodied idiomatic expressions and language parts. Such a reductionist approach to language fails to associate language’s surface structure with macro-structures of context and cannot account for various viewpoints elicited through languages internationally. Research Methodology and Theoretical Framework The present study in cognitive linguistics, based on Lakoff and Johnson’s (1987) and Lakoff and Feldman’s (2012) theories of image schemas and NTL, adopts a descriptive-analytical approach. Data include sixty idiomatic expressions, twenty from each of the three languages: English, Farsi, and French, within the semantic domains of “affection and annoyance.” These three languages are purposefully selected as they all belong to the Indo-European family but stem from different branches, allowing for a focused investigation of “environmental variations” as a major cultural variable influencing embodied conceptualization. Discussion and Analysis The final table for both domains of “annoyance and affection” is as follows: Table 1. Percentage of Employing Each Image Schema in Each Language and Totally Image Schema Total French Farsi English Force 24.78 33.32 33.36 33.32 Containment 16.55 31.65 36.65 31.65 Part-whole 16.31 31.30 38.10 33.55 Path 11.75 40.68 22.24 37.08 Link 10.35 29.92 33.32 30.65 Balance 9.97 29.17 45 25.84 Surface 9.09 18.98 11.47 22.56 Direction 6.50 45 22.50 32.50 In this study, the FORCE schema emerged as the most dominant conceptual pattern for understanding “annoyance” and “affection” across English, Farsi, and French. Subschemas of FORCE, such as inserting power and compulsion, transfer the concept of “annoyance” in idioms like “pain in the neck,” “headache,” and “break someone’s leg” in the three languages. Other subschemas, such as power insertion, attraction, and hindrance, efficiently conceptualize both related notions. The equal percentage across all languages (33.32%) in the use of the FORCE image schema highlights the vital role of power relations and force interactions in human cognition to illustrate related abstract concepts. Cultural variations, reflected in the various language surface structures in the three languages, lead to different cultural identities. The CONTAINER image schema, as the second most employed tool, shows how the mind perceives and transfers emotions as things that can be inserted into or excluded from a specific container since “body skin” acts as the basic borderline of mind and language to conceptualize meanings. The greater percentage of this pattern in Farsi reflects tensions and pressures on the Farsi-speaking community who become full of emotions in a state of intolerance. For example, “daq-e del-e čiz-i ra sar-e kas-i khali kardan” (empty heart’s gland on somebody) is an idiom in Farsi representing “anger” as a full container waiting to be released. The PART-WHOLE image schema, ranked third, is a main pattern to improve the “embodiment” of languages. Meaning stems from a part, which can be a body organ, and then extends to an overall entity. “Hands/arms, ears, hearts/blood, neck/head, and teeth” across the three languages are considered symbols of “acceptance, empathy, love, affection, annoyance, and oppression.” The high percentage of its employment in Farsi refers to an analytic, judgmental culture where people interpret feelings and intangible concepts through visible, detailed bodily actions and moral introspection. The PATH image schema ranks fourth overall, with the highest frequency observed in French and English. Consider the idioms “to be carried away by love” in English and “être emporté par l’amour = carried by love” in French, versus “sar az pā nešnaxtan = not distinguishing head from foot” in Farsi. The first two languages, influenced by Western action-oriented culture, conceptualize “love” as a dynamic, forward-moving force. In contrast, Farsi portrays it as a source of confusion and emotional imbalance, reflecting the BALANCE and PART-WHOLE schemas. The high frequency of the BALANCE schema in Persian suggests that the cultural context of the Farsi-speaking community, with its millennia-long civilization, promotes a restrained, conservative, and self-controlled mindset where emotional expressions, whether “anger, annoyance” or “love, affection,” are often suppressed in favor of maintaining social harmony and personal dignity (e.g., “dandān be jegar gozāštan = put teeth on liver”). The SURFACE image schema is ranked higher in English and French. English and French-speaking communities, shaped by Western individualism, conceptualize emotions (and love, more specifically) as external forces acting upon the individual. English idioms such as “eat out of someone’s hand” and “be hot under the collar” relate “body surface” to “control and anger” as well. Application of the DIRECTION image schema across the three languages indicates that humans resort to spatial orientations to conceptualize emotional relationships, with French and Farsi making the most extensive use of such imagery. French idioms such as “toujours sur le dos de qqn = always on someone’s back” evoke hierarchical spatial orientation to signify dominance and harm within the cultural and political context of French. Islamic and mystic beliefs of Persian culture, associating “affection and positive attributes” with “right” and a modest “low” direction, and vice versa, are also noticeable in many Farsi expressions. Cultural similarities, reflected in similar language surface structures in the three languages, lead to similar viewpoints. This study, focusing on the formal structures of idiomatic expressions in conveying the same conceptual meaning across three languages, has identified a list of fully or partially cross-cultural and universal conceptual metaphors (Kövecses, 2018) as well as identical cognitive primitives (cogs) in the domains of “annoyance and affection.” Lakoff (2012) identifies two basic components underlying metaphoric thought: 1) primary conceptual metaphors and 2) cognitive primitives (cogs) or image schemas, which are fundamental components of metaphors. Consider the universal conceptual metaphor “to welcome somebody with open arms, hands, or a hug” in the three languages, which is composed of a similar primary metaphor of “acceptance is open” and one cognitive primitive (image schema) of “containment” in all languages. This involves an abstract source domain of “closeness” and a target domain of “acceptance,” which are mapped onto each other when a gestalt node on the neural path confirms such a mapping in the relevant concept, and then the final metaphor is formed. This metaphor consists of some other primary metaphors that include PATH, PART-WHOLE, LINK, and FORCE image schemas in the three languages as well, all of which must first be confirmed by the gestalt node of the neuron before the main metaphor comes into existence. Conclusion Results of this study confirm the significant role of “embodied individual experiences in cultural contexts,” which highlights the notion of “embodied culture” in shaping conceptual metaphors of the two domains of “affection and annoyance” in three languages. First, analyses demonstrate that “embodiment” is 100% present in the source domain of all image schemas. Therefore, the results align with Johnson’s viewpoint on how “meaning” is shaped through embodiment: it is embedded in the environment, enacted by speakers, extended into the world, and is emotional and evolutionary (2024). Secondly, the study proves the inevitable role of “environment and cultural context” in the construction of language’s surface structure and cultural identity, which forms a dialectical interaction of “environment-embodied language-mindset” and affirms Johnson’s statement on how mind and body form a union interacting with the environment (2024). Based on the results of this research, the action-oriented, pragmatic setting of English and the Existentialist movements of French create a dynamic Western culture, which affects language and French structures to involve PATH image schemas and contribute to a more agentive identity for speakers. Moreover, the individualistic, self-centered lifestyle of the Anglo-Saxons, predecessors of the English, is reflected in English structure to include the SURFACE schema and elicits more personal autonomy in its speakers. On the other hand, the conservative analytic culture of Persia, under the influence of its mystic literature, history of wars, and valuation of “resistance,” inspires idiomatic illustrations in line with BALANCE, PART-WHOLE, and CONTAINMENT schemas. However, the high number of universal and cross-cultural metaphors found in the two domains of “affection and annoyance,” covering 14 out of 20 expressions, indicates that human bodily experiences for the concepts of “annoyance and affection” are highly rooted in very primary habits of humankind. Cross-cultural embodiment leads to the convergence of conceptual metaphors, primary metaphors, and image schemas (cogs) across the three languages. With regard to contradictory results achieved: 6 out of 20 universal metaphors in analyzing the dataset of “betrayal and honesty” in an identical study by Mohammadi (2024), and following Kövecses’s (2018) classification, metaphors of “annoyance and affection” are considered universal, and idioms of “betrayal and honesty” are distinguished as “cultural” since the former emotional concepts are basic enough to be illustrated based on the primary embodiment of all humankind, but the latter moral notions depend on cultural rituals to be portrayed.

Abstract Abstract This study employs a descriptive-analytical approach to examine the interrogative sentences in selected poems of Mehdi Akhavan Sales. Specifically, it analyzes the collections Zemestan, Akhar-e Shahnameh, and Az In Avesta. The findings indicate that Akhavan predominantly utilizes open interrogative sentences, particularly those seeking broad and limited information. This suggests his keen interest in precise and detailed answers to complex issues, while still maintaining a degree of control over the scope of potential responses. Among closed questions, a notable emphasis is placed on yes/no interrogatives, reflecting Akhavan's pursuit of explicit affirmation or negation regarding actions and seeking confirmation or rejection from the audience. A separate analysis of interrogative sentence types across these three collections reveals a decrease in the frequency of emphatic sentences, juxtaposed with an increase in yes/no and alternative questions. In Akhar-e Shahnameh, the prevalence of extensive informational sentences declines, while limited informational sentences increase. Conversely, Az In Avesta shows a resurgence in the frequency of these sentence types. The thematic orientation of the questions primarily revolves around the identity of individuals and the nature and type of actions, a focus that becomes particularly pronounced in Az In Avesta. This thematic shift underscores a heightened attention to individual identity, the human origin of actions, and their inherent nature. Introduction Akhavan Sales incorporates diverse interrogative forms in his poetry to address political, social, cultural, and doctrinal concerns, which he considers emblematic of contemporary Iranian verse. The prominent deployment of interrogative sentences in Akhavan's oeuvre can be attributed to several contributing factors: firstly, the poet's internal emotional metamorphoses in his personal life; secondly, the varied nature of his reactions to socio-political events; thirdly, the poet's intellectual perplexity regarding religious and philosophical tenets; and fourthly, Akhavan's inherent duality stemming from his Iranian and Muslim identities. Furthermore, Akhavan Sales posited that social poetry should eschew a purely reportorial or overtly political stance. Instead, such issues ought to be conveyed through artistic ambiguity and layered meanings, with various interrogative forms serving as a primary vehicle for this nuanced expression. This study aims to address the following research questions: Among the various categories of interrogative sentences (i.e., broad informational, limited informational, yes/no, alternative, and tag questions), which types did the poet emphasize most extensively? What is the extent of the speaker's control over these interrogative constructions, and what were the primary thematic orientations of these questions? Literature Review The utilization of interrogative forms in Akhavan Sales's poetry has been previously investigated from the perspectives of rhetoric (balaghat) and semantics. Researchers have largely concluded that the majority of questions in Akhavan's poetry implicitly convey sentiments of helplessness and despair. Additionally, one study indicates that out of the twenty-seven pragmatic functions proposed by Shamisa, Akhavan devoted significant attention to twelve functions, with despair emerging as the most prominent semantic-intentional category. This current research, however, distinguishes itself by being the first to systematically examine the syntactic typology of interrogative sentences, the degree of speaker control inherent in them, and their thematic orientation within Akhavan's poetic corpus. Methodology This study employs a descriptive-analytical approach, firmly rooted in linguistic principles, to scrutinize the types of interrogative sentences and their thematic orientations across three distinct poetry collections: Zemestan, Akhar-e Shahnameh, and Az In Avesta. Initially, established scholarly sources concerning question design and typologies were comprehensively reviewed. Subsequently, relevant textual samples were systematically extracted and meticulously documented. The culminating phase involved the cross-validation of findings, followed by the presentation of the requisite analyses and data. Analysis and Discussion 4.1. Types of Interrogative Sentences in Akhavan Sales's Poetry An examination of interrogative sentence types, based on the chronological progression of the poems, reveals a discernible decrease in the frequency of tag questions. This trend suggests a reduction in the intensity of the speaker's control over the respondent over time. In Akhar-e Shahnameh, relative to Zemestan, the frequency of broad informational interrogatives is lower, while limited informational interrogatives are more prevalent. This shift implies the poet's pursuit of more precise and granular answers. Conversely, the frequency of informational sentences experiences a notable resurgence in Az In Avesta, reflecting the poet's renewed inclination to address overarching existential concerns. The increasing trend in the use of yes/no interrogatives underscores the poet's evolving focus on explicit and definitive answers over time. Finally, Az In Avesta exhibits a higher frequency of limited informational, alternative, and yes/no questions compared to the preceding two collections, signifying the poet's transition from an open-ended dialogue toward a more conclusive judgment. 4.2. Thematic Orientation of the Questions In the collection Az In Avesta, interrogatives pertaining to the identity and presence of individuals, as well as the inherent nature and typology of actions and affairs, are more pronounced compared to the preceding two collections. Furthermore, a specific inquiry concerning what an entity ought to actualize and which duty it must undertake constitutes a distinct emphasis when contrasted with the earlier works. The escalation of these two thematic orientations in Az In Avesta suggests that Akhavan has transitioned from the predominantly social and historical questions characteristic of his earlier poems toward more anthropological and existential inquiries. This shift signals a move from a collective and protest-oriented perspective to a more introspective and philosophical one. Conclusion Akhavan Sales primarily employed limited informational questions to elicit specific answers regarding situational elements such as the time, place, and human origins of events. While the poet utilized broad informational questions to seek novel responses, he nonetheless maintained significant control over these open-ended inquiries through the structured nature of the answers and the circumscription of the questions themselves. Among the closed interrogative forms, yes/no questions exhibited the highest frequency in Akhavan's poetry, indicating a pursuit of explicit and definitive responses concerning the occurrence or non-occurrence, or the rejection or affirmation, of events and subjects. The dominant thematic orientations of the questions, presented in descending order of frequency, encompassed the identity of individuals, the nature and type of actions, the location of events, the quality of actions, the possibility or impossibility of an action's occurrence, time, and the underlying rationale behind events. The objective of the identity-related questions was to articulate skepticism regarding the meaning of individuals' lives, to reflect their alienation and individuality within a collective context, to demonstrate identity crises and self-alienation, and ultimately, to engage in their re-identification. The rationale behind formulating questions concerning the nature and type of actions and affairs was to expose the inherent incompatibility between the mode of action and its specific context of manifestation.