Shirin Roshani; Habibollah Abbasi
Abstract
The magic of proximity has been a crucial and determining factor in examining the linguistic and rhetorical impacts on the intellectual perspective of Iranians throughout history. This rhetorical technique is so powerful that it has sometimes influenced the historical and cultural destiny of Iranians. ...
Read More
The magic of proximity has been a crucial and determining factor in examining the linguistic and rhetorical impacts on the intellectual perspective of Iranians throughout history. This rhetorical technique is so powerful that it has sometimes influenced the historical and cultural destiny of Iranians. The impact of the magic of proximity occurs through foregrounding at the level of speech. Throughout the literary history of Iran, authors have always tried to persuade their audience by relying on this influential factor. The gateway to texts is their titles; hence, this foregrounding is intensely evident in the titles of works, especially in artistic prose. This study, using a descriptive-analytical method, demonstrates the magic of proximity in nineteen titles of artistic and ornate prose. The theoretical basis of the present study is the theories discussed in Kurosh Safavi’s book From Linguistics to Literature, which considers literariness as a result of rule-making and balance in the surface structure of language. This rule-making and balance lead to the magic of proximity in the titles of works, which, besides creating beauty, encourage readers to study the works through auditory and visual pleasure and ultimately lead to a sense of persuasion in the audience. IntroductionPersian prose, similar to Arabic prose, has often been subordinate to poetry and somewhat follows its lead. This is most evident in artistic prose, which gradually emerged in the late fifth century, particularly when the political structure shifted from rationality and democracy towards emotionalism and despotism. Simplicity in writing gradually gave way to elaboration and artificiality, transforming the era of tragedies into an era of caricatures. This shift accelerated when Ashʿari discourse and Shafiʿi jurisprudence replaced Muʿtazili discourse and Hanafi jurisprudence, and as it is said, Khwajah Nezam al-Molk Tusi took the place of ʿAmid al-Molk Kondori. From this point onwards, the structure of structures began to decline, and the decadence in Persian prose emerged, with its manifestations visible in the titles of books from this period, predominantly influenced by proximity.In this study, we aim to examine the intellectual decline of Iranians, influenced by the decline of political thought, and to reflect this through the analysis of the magic of proximity in the titles of artistic prose works. We also seek to explain that whenever meaning has been eclipsed, words and form have dominated, becoming the prevailing aspect of that culture, and linguistic games have replaced meaning-creation and intellectual exploration. Research BackgroundVarious studies have been conducted on the subject of the present inquiry, drawing on different works. The article "The Magic of Proximity" by Mohammad Reza Shafiei Kadkani was first published in October 1998 and subsequently became a subject of study and analysis for many researchers. This article, along with other lectures, was published in a book titled Resurrection of Words (2012). In this article, the author discusses the causes of the magic of proximity and its effects on the structure of culture and thought. Numerous articles have analyzed this topic, a few of which are mentioned below."Manifestations of the Magic of Proximity in Masnavi" by Mitra Golchin and Mohammad Reza Shafiei Kadkani: This study examines and introduces the rhetorical domain of the magic of proximity in Masnavi. The findings indicate that elements creating internal music, such as various types of puns, melody, repetition of consonants and vowels, reinforce the magic of contiguity in Masnavi.Another study, "The Magic of Proximity in Several Sermons of Nahj al-Balagha," by Farahnaz Shahverdi, Mahmoud Shahbazi, Ghasem Mokhtari, and Seyyed Abolfazl Sajjadi, analyzes the magic of Proximity on syntagmatic and paradigmatic axes. It also introduces the artistic elements that, through the process of selecting and combining words along these two axes, create defamiliarization in the usual texture of speech. Their achievement in this study is presenting examples of novel creations in the innermost layers of speech texture (spiritual music).Another article that adopts a similar approach to the present inquiry is "Examining the Magic of Proximity in Folk Proverbs" by Alireza Asadi and Mohammad Reza Khoman. This study, applying the linguistic theories discussed by Kurosh Safavi, examines the book Story of Bahmaniari, which includes six thousand proverbs, and identifies the music-creating elements such as rhyme, pun, alliteration, and repetition as creators of the magic of proximity in proverbs.To date, no independent research has been conducted on the analysis of the magic of contiguity in the titles of technical and artificial prose works. MethodologyThis research aims to depict the intellectual decline of Iranians, influenced by the decline of political ideas, and to reflect this through the analysis of the magic of proximity in the titles of artistic prose works. The study employs a descriptive-analytical method to show how the magic of proximity draws attention to the titles of literary works. This study draws its methodology from Kurosh Safavi’s From Linguistics to Literature, employing a deductive observational approach. DiscussionLiterary creation is perceived as a product of rule-making and balance within the surface layer of language. Titles of artistic and ornate prose are categorized and examined under various themes. Relying on the notion of establishing balance at both phonetic and lexical levels, the study showcases the utilization of the magic of proximity in the selected titles. Of particular note is the significant prevalence of artistic and ornate prose with historical themes within this classification. As these prose works veer away from narrative elements towards a more scientific framework, their quantity diminishes due to increased emphasis on structure and persuasion. This transition underscores the notion that distancing oneself from linguistic aesthetics leads to a greater emphasis on reality and scientific content. One of the primary functions of framing historical events within a narrative structure is persuasion. Narrators aim to not only engage their audience but also to convince them of the validity of the depicted issues through various storytelling techniques. Language holds a pivotal role in influencing the audience’s reception and acceptance of the narrative content. In catering to audiences from diverse ideological backgrounds, specific tools are required to effectively achieve the goal of persuasion and acceptance. Across different historical epochs, the magic of proximity has consistently emerged as a potent tool in reshaping the attitudes of cultural denizens within society.The aesthetic concept of proximity magic is predicated upon the amalgamation of disparate elements within its compelling spectrum, imbuing them with a sense of coherence or cohesion. By leveraging the formal proximity of said elements or their harmonious resonance in relation to their profound essence, the perceived distance between them is effaced, fostering a perception of proximity in both visage and significance. This study employs linguistic rules that yield a rhetorical resonance aimed at augmenting the intrinsic musicality of the text. ConclusionThe findings of this study, similar to other research conducted in this field, indicate that the magic of proximity has always played a significant and influential role in the intellectual life of Iranians. Creating powerful music through the proximity of identical or similar phonemes and the juxtaposition of syllables in a particular pattern results in balance, leading the audience to accept any message unconditionally upon hearing and perceiving this balance.One of the domains where the magic of proximity manifests itself is in the titles of artistic and ornate prose works. Given that the title of a work is a crucial factor in attracting and retaining the audience, authors have always endeavored to captivate them initially through the title. By examining the titles of several artistic and ornate prose works across different fields, we concluded that the magic of proximity is manifested through a specific system in them. This specific system was studied in two areas: phonetic balance and lexical balance. In the area of phonetic balance, the titles showed harmony at both the phoneme and syllable levels, thus possessing high musical power. In the area of lexical balance, we encounter two literary devices: pun and rhyme. What creates the magic of proximity in this area is the differences at the word level, which have led to various puns and rhymes, almost ubiquitous in all titles. Since most works in this period are in two or more parts, the authors have fully utilized this capacity in word selection and title creation.Another finding of this research is the high frequency of various influential factors in creating the magic of proximity among works with historical content. Given the type of historiography in these periods, which leans toward narrative history, the historian-writer seeks to persuade the audience. One of the key functions of the magic of contiguity is convincing the audience, a phenomenon evident throughout our literary history.
mahmoud mehravaran; Atefeh Saleh
Abstract
In Persian, sentences are categorized based on their meaning, structure, and function. One such type, known as the parenthetical sentence, has been recognized since ancient times. Parenthetical sentences have various functions and structures. This study aims to identify different types of parenthetical ...
Read More
In Persian, sentences are categorized based on their meaning, structure, and function. One such type, known as the parenthetical sentence, has been recognized since ancient times. Parenthetical sentences have various functions and structures. This study aims to identify different types of parenthetical sentences in contemporary Persian texts. Diverse texts were selected and analyzed, and the parenthetical sentences were extracted and categorized based on their functions. The findings revealed that the functional purposes of these sentences extend beyond prayers, curses, appositions, and further explanations to include a broader and more diverse range of functions and objectives. Considering the statistical population of this study, with the inclusion of primary rhetorical roles and their subcategories, 49 purposes and functions for parenthetical sentences were identified in contemporary Persian. Additionally, the study showed that the importance of parenthetical sentences varies depending on the text in which they appear and their type of application. In certain texts, such as dramatic texts, they cannot be omitted. Overall, omitting parenthetical sentences from a text reduces the reader's awareness and understanding of details and may even hinder complete comprehension of the statement.
Introduction
A sentence is the most complete unit of message transmission in language, especially in writing. Sentences can be classified based on meaning and structure. In terms of meaning and content, sentences are divided into declarative, interrogative, imperative, subjunctive, and exclamatory. Structurally, sentences are categorized into simple (a sentence whose meaning is complete with a single verb) and compound (a sentence with more than one verb). Other classifications, such as sentences with and without verbs, also exist. One type of sentence is known as the parenthetical sentence. This type is neither distinct or independent from other sentence classifications in terms of content and meaning, nor in terms of structure; rather, it is one of the simple or compound sentences that is inserted within other sentences for specific rhetorical and functional purposes. This type of sentence has been present in Persian language since ancient times. Previously, it was more prominent in poetry, whereas today, it is more frequently used in prose.
In this study, we aim to demonstrate that the parenthetical sentence holds significant importance in conveying meaning and that its applications have numerous functions and purposes today. This article attempts to answer the following questions: 1) How is the parenthetical sentence used in contemporary Persian? 2) What are the functions of this type of sentence? 3) How does the importance of these sentences vary concerning their type or presence in specific texts?
Research Method
This study employs a descriptive-analytical method and utilizes library resources. Consequently, for the various types of parenthetical sentences in contemporary Persian, different texts such as scientific books, short and long stories, novels, screenplays, memoirs, and the like were selected and studied. Subsequently, the parenthetical sentences from these texts were extracted and categorized according to their function and purpose, as detailed in the following sections.
Discussion and Findings
The parenthetical sentence in Persian is examined from three perspectives: a) in rhetorical books under redundancy; b) under the topic of pleonasm in rhetorics; and c) in grammar books as a type of sentence. The parenthetical sentence serves diverse functions and purposes in both writing and speech, though there are no clear boundaries between them. According to the findings of this research, the parenthetical sentence serves the following functions and purposes: increasing awareness and information, description, prayer, curse, expression of affection, stating the cause, doubt and speculation, stating proverbs or similes, expressing opposition and contrast, praise, criticism, brevity, gratitude, polite request (accompanied by an apology), shyness from saying something, creating hope, expressing surprise and astonishment, interpretation, presence of the narrator, addressing the audience, sarcasm or ridicule, expressing probability, exclusivity, self-exoneration and clearing misunderstandings, referring to the preceding text, providing examples and illustrations, questioning, and non-author commentary on the text
Conclusion
In this study, based on selected texts from authors with diverse viewpoints, expressions, and styles, 49 functions for the parenthetical sentence were identified. According to the research findings, parenthetical sentences are used for various purposes and their importance varies depending on their application or the text in which they are placed. For instance, a parenthetical sentence used in a dramatic text is more significant than one used in a narrative text, as it may convey specific states, spatial situations, or details related to body language that are crucial and cannot be omitted in dramatic texts. The importance of different types of parenthetical sentences varies from one type to another. Therefore, the omission of parenthetical sentences generally reduces the audience's awareness of details and can sometimes even hinder complete comprehension of the phrase. Parenthetical sentences are not merely used for further explanation or for purposes like prayer or cursing; they are not pleonasms, and their presence in the text is effective. Although the main sentence might be complete without the parenthetical sentence, the inclusion of these sentences provides the reader or listener with additional details, which are sometimes essential in certain texts. Parenthetical sentences are not limited to poetry; they have syntactic roles, are part of compound sentences, and appear in forms such as quasi-sentences, sentences, and conjunctive sentences. Occasionally, they resemble appositives, explicative conjunctions, and adverbials.
Ahmad Zia Rafat; Esmail Tajbakhsh
Abstract
The language of journalism in Afghanistan has undergone various transformations over the past one and a half centuries. One such transformation is the semantic change of vocabulary, specifically lexical attrition. This study examines the semantic changes in the Persian language words used in ...
Read More
The language of journalism in Afghanistan has undergone various transformations over the past one and a half centuries. One such transformation is the semantic change of vocabulary, specifically lexical attrition. This study examines the semantic changes in the Persian language words used in Shams al-Nahar, the first printed periodical in Afghanistan, and compares it with Kabul Weekly. This research aims to illustrate the type and frequency of semantic changes characterized by semantic and lexical attrition (the obsolescence of one meaning of words or their complete abandonment) and identify the factors contributing to these changes in Shams al-Nahar. This research is fundamental in purpose, descriptive in analytical method, and library-based in research methodology. The description and analysis of the data indicate that the majority of changes are of the type involving the complete obsolescence of words. The reason for these changes is the tendency of the Persian language to shift from complexity to simplicity. The findings reveal that a number of Urdu words were prevalent in Shams al-Nahar. Additionally, the use of several relatively obscure words, particularly Arabic words, in Shams al-Nahar indicates that during the period of this publication, ornate or bureaucratic prose was very prominent in journalistic language. In this research, which for the first time addresses the semantic changes in the Persian language within Shams al-Nahar, the researcher has statistically presented the type and frequency of semantic changes in this publication.
Introduction
The study of language change is an important area of research with implications across various fields, including linguistics, anthropology, psychology, and neuroscience. By examining how language evolves, researchers can gain insights into how it influences the development of social structures, group dynamics, and cultural norms. Such studies help us understand the role of language in shaping human societies and the ways it contributes to social evolution. Within the realm of language change, the study of lexical and semantic transformations is particularly significant. This refers to the changes that occur over time in the form and meaning of units within a language, which can be lexical or conceptual. Understanding these transformations not only enriches our comprehension of language but also sheds light on the cognitive processes behind communication. Additionally, it highlights the interconnectedness of language with cultural identity and social change, underscoring the dynamic nature of human expression and interaction.
Literature Review
Although many research works have been published on the evolution of the Persian language, there seems to be a lack of books or articles specifically examining the semantic transformations of Persian in Afghan publications. However, several studies related to this topic have been conducted. For example, Hassan Zolfaqari's work, Non-Standard Patterns in the Language of the Press, provides important insights into the evolution of the Persian language in Iranian media. Parviz Natel Khanlari, in his book A History of the Persian Language, discusses the evolution of Persian from ancient times to the present, highlighting the influence of foreign languages on Persian. Rasoul Rahin explores the historical roots and origins of Dari Persian in The Story of the Dari Persian Language, examining its expansion. Najm Kaviani's The History of Persian Language in the Last Century in Afghanistan and Tajikistan addresses the changes in the Persian language specifically in Afghanistan. Furthermore, Mohammad Kazem Ahang offers a detailed account of Afghan journalism in The Course of Journalism in Afghanistan. In Language Change: A History of Dari Persian (Facts), Mohammad Hossein Yamin discusses the origins and historical changes in Dari Persian. Rasoul Rahin also provides a clear picture of Afghan journalism from its inception to the present in The History of the Press in Afghanistan from Shams al-Nahar to the Republic. Finally, Mohammad Halim Tanveer examines influential figures in the early days of Afghan journalism in his work, The History of Journalism in Afghanistan.
Methodology
This research is library-based. The study is fundamental in nature and employs an analytical-descriptive method. It compares the semantic changes in Persian words as seen in Shams al-Nahar (the first printed periodical in Afghanistan) and Kabul Weekly (a more recent publication). The study focuses on three issues of each publication.
Discussion
Sociolinguists consider linguistic diversity to be an intrinsic feature of languages. They believe that social factors such as gender, social class, education, age, and ethnicity play a crucial role in creating and manifesting linguistic diversity. This perspective also applies to the evolution of the Persian language. Since its inception in Afghan journalism (in 1252 SH) until today, Persian has undergone significant lexical and semantic changes. In the last century, due to the development of journalistic language along with other factors, it has seen notable semantic transformations. The changes in language within journalism are influenced by various factors, including technological advancements, social and cultural changes, shifting news consumption patterns, and the evolving media landscape. Understanding the complex and reciprocal effects of these factors is essential for a comprehensive description of the causes underlying language change in journalism. Semantic change refers to alterations in the meaning of a word over time, which can be driven by various social, cultural, scientific, and technological factors. Lexical semantic changes can occur in several ways, including lexical substitution, lexical expansion, and lexical attrition.
Conclusion
The analysis of the findings reveals that out of 72 changed words in three issues of Shams al-Nahar, 26 words have fallen out of use, and 46 words are completely obsolete. In examining the factors behind these semantic changes in Shams al-Nahar compared to Kabul Weekly, the research indicates that some words entered the journalistic language of Shams al-Nahar through Urdu-language publications from British India. Additionally, the presence of less commonly used Arabic words in Shams al-Nahar reflects the influence of Arabic on its journalistic language. As we move further from the 13th century, it can be concluded that political, cultural, economic, and technological factors, along with a focus on simplicity in writing, have significantly impacted the evolution of journalistic language. These findings underscore the importance of continuous research in this field to better understand the ongoing dynamics of language change and its broader societal implications.
Elham Mizban; Ali Alizadeh; Shahla Sharifi
Abstract
This study, considering the optional nature of the extraction of constituents such as relative clauses and prepositional phrases appearing as modifiers of nominal heads, investigates these factors during the growth and development period of the Persian language. To this end, a systematic random sampling ...
Read More
This study, considering the optional nature of the extraction of constituents such as relative clauses and prepositional phrases appearing as modifiers of nominal heads, investigates these factors during the growth and development period of the Persian language. To this end, a systematic random sampling of 12 texts from this period was conducted, and sections totaling 120,000 words were examined. The findings indicate that the relative clause is the most frequently extracted constituent during the growth and development period of New Persian, followed by the prepositional phrase. Additionally, by dividing this period into two stylistic subsections: plain prose (nathr-e morsal) and artistic prose (nathr-e fanni), it was shown that there is a significant difference in the frequency and grammatical weight of the extracted constituents between these two styles. The frequency of constituent extraction is higher in the plain prose period and significantly lower in the artistic prose period. Accordingly, in line with the stylistic analysis of plain prose, which is simple, similar to narrative language, with short sentences and easy processing, the rate of constituent extraction that facilitates text processing is higher. Conversely, in line with the characteristics of technical prose, which is complex, obscure, and consists of long and convoluted sentences, the rate of constituent extraction is reported to be lower. Thus, it seems that the significant alignment of constituent extraction frequency with previous stylistic studies indicates that the syntactic criterion of constituent extraction can be used alongside other common indicators in the stylistic analysis of Persian prose. IntroductionThe Persian language, as a significant branch of the Indo-European language family, has undergone substantial transformations throughout its historical development. These changes, manifested across three major periods - Old Persian, Middle Persian, and New Persian - have shaped its current linguistic structure. The New Persian period, spanning from the 4th to the 14th century AH (10th to 20th century CE), provides an invaluable repository of written works in both prose and poetry. The study of linguistic evolution during this period not only contributes to the preservation of this rich heritage but also facilitates a deeper understanding of Persian's structural development. Research MethodologyThis study focuses on the growth and development period of New Persian (3rd to 7th century AH), examining the optional nature of the extraposition, particularly of relative clauses and prepositional phrases. The research corpus consists of 12 texts from this period, with 10,000 words analyzed from each text, totally 120.000 words. The methodology employed systematic random sampling, selecting three works from three different authors with narrative prose from each century. Statistical analysis was conducted by using SPSS software and employing both descriptive and inferential statistical methods. Results and AnalysisThe analysis of syntactic constituents in Classical Persian texts uncovers critical insights into the distribution and nature of extraposed constituents. From a corpus of 1,057 constituents, extraposed relative clauses dominate, making up 833 cases (79%), while extraposed prepositional phrases include only 220 cases (21%). This preference for relative clause extraposition highlights a characteristic of Classical Persian syntax. A significant contrast is shown between the plain prose (nathr-e morsal) and artistic prose (nathr-e fanni) periods; with the plain prose period yielding 693 extracted constituents versus 364 in the technical period, which indicates a 48% decrease. This reduction marks a shift in syntactic complexity and stylistic approaches. Further analysis of grammatical weight reveals an evolution in Persian prose. The average grammatical weight of extraposed relative clauses increased from 5.95 in the plain prose period to 6.82 in the technical period. This suggests that as Persian prose has moved towards artistic styles by adopting more complex syntactic structures. Statistical Mann-Whitne U test (p < 0.001) confirm these differences as systematic changes in prose style. The inverse relationship between the frequency of extraposition and grammatical weight illustrates a deliberate shift towards complexity in the technical period. This aligns with the evolution of Persian literary prose, marked by sophisticated syntax for rhetorical effect. The findings indicate a cultural and linguistic shift in Persian literature, where technical writers preferred complex structures to achieve aesthetic and rhetorical goals. Discussion and Theoretical FrameworkThe study of constituent extraposition patterns in Classical Persian reveals significant insights into historical syntax and stylistic evolution. During the technical prose period, a decline in constituent extraposition coincided with increased sentence complexity and length, highlighting the interplay between syntactic structure and literary style. This is particularly evident in technical prose, where complex syntax was used to showcase linguistic sophistication and aesthetic beauty. The research also offers theoretical insights into syntactic change in Classical Persian, showing a bidirectional relationship between syntactic complexity and stylistic evolution. Constituent extraposition played a crucial role in historical syntax, balancing grammatical and stylistic functions. Writers skillfully managed structural complexity and communicative clarity, a balance that became more nuanced as Persian prose styles evolved from plain to technical forms. Methodologically, the present study positions constituent extraposition as a metric for stylistic analysis which in turn provides a quantitative framework for examining historical syntax. By integrating grammatical weight analysis, it offers a new perspective for the study of syntactic changes, allowing for comparisons across historical periods. This approach combines traditional linguistic analysis with quantitative methods, offering a tool for analyzing Classical Persian texts. The findings suggest that development of the Persian prose style was complex, involving multiple linguistic levels. Technical prose writers manipulated syntax to achieve stylistic goals which reflect broader cultural and intellectual shifts in Persian society. This transformation linked literary complexity with scholarly achievement, illustrating how syntax and style changes can mirror and influence societal trends. ConclusionThis research considers constituent extraposition as a significant metric in Persian prose stylistic analysis, which reveal distinctions between plain and technical prose periods. The study’s findings demonstrate that syntactic changes, particularly in extraction frequency and grammatical weight, parallel the broader stylistic evolution of Classical Persian literature. By introducing constituent extraposition as a quantifiable measure and examining its relationship with grammatical weight across different periods, this research provides new methodological tools for analyzing historical Persian texts. The transformation from plain to technical prose style emerges as a comprehensive process encompassing not only lexical and semantic shifts but also fundamental syntactic changes. These structural modifications, characterized by decreased constituent extraction and increased complexity, reflect the development of Persian toward greater literary sophistication and stylistic refinement.
ayoob Moradi
Abstract
Understanding the subtleties of Hafez’s poetry has always been a critical and noteworthy endeavor in the history of literary studies due to the poet’s unique standing among Iranians. Consequently, his ghazal and sometimes certain verses of his poetry have been a subject of attention and debate ...
Read More
Understanding the subtleties of Hafez’s poetry has always been a critical and noteworthy endeavor in the history of literary studies due to the poet’s unique standing among Iranians. Consequently, his ghazal and sometimes certain verses of his poetry have been a subject of attention and debate among scholars. Some verses have been particularly contentious due to their semantic complexity and interpretative challenges, leading to varying opinions among commentators. Despite various approaches taken by scholars to resolve these disputes, many disagreements remain unresolved. In this descriptive-analytical study, an effort has been made to propose a model for resolving semantic difficulties in Hafez’s verses by focusing on the types of lexical connections within his ghazals. This research utilizes three well-known theories: Halliday and Hasan’s lexical cohesion, Riffaterre’s semiotic theory of poetry, and the category of binary oppositions in structuralist semiotics. The findings indicate that focusing on various types of lexical connections, such as synonymy, congruence, hyponymy, metaphorical commonality, antonymy, and opposition, plays a significant role in identifying the underlying sème governing the ghazals. A professional reader of Hafez can, by identifying and extracting these sèmes, resolve the existing semantic ambiguities in the ghazals. To assess the practical applicability of this model, two controversial verses, “Ay Del Shabāb Raft-o Nachidi Goli ze Omr” [O heart, youth has gone, and you did not pick a flower of joy] and “Har Ke Chon Lāleh Kāseh Gardān Shod” [Whoever circled the bowl like a tulip], were analyzed using the proposed model. The results demonstrated the model’s effectiveness in understanding the hidden meanings and resolving the semantic issues in Hafez’s poetry.
Introduction
Given the significant importance of Hafez’s poetry and thought among Perian literature enthusiasts throughout the history of this nation’s literature, numerous figures have endeavored to interpret and elucidate the poems and ideas of this great poet. This importance has led to some of Hafez’s verses becoming points of contention among commentators, with occasionally conflicting opinions presented in their commentaries. These differences in opinion, alongside the various methods employed to overcome the semantic challenges of Hafez’s poetry, motivated the present study to explore a model for analyzing and resolving the semantic difficulties of contentious verses based on other verses and the words and phrases within the encompassing ghazal. In this context, the study seeks to utilize some well-known theories in the field of critical text reading, including Halliday and Hasan’s theory of lexical cohesion, Michael Riffaterre’s proposed semiotic theory of poetry, and the category of binary oppositions in structuralist semiotics regarding the relationships between words. The paper analyzes and interprets two contentious verses from two different ghazals within this framework.
Research Method and Theoretical Framework
In lexical cohesion, the subject of text cohesion is examined with a focus on the relationships among words. Undoubtedly, there is a connection and relevance among the words present in a text, considering the author’s intention and purpose. Accordingly, a critic, in the role of a text analyst, can identify and analyze these relationships to uncover the primary sèmes or the core meaning of the text’s creator. In this context, the meanings of disputed or ambiguous words can also be identified through recognizing this core. Riffaterre, emphasizing the existence of two reading levels—mimetic and semiotic—in the process of reading poetry, considers the former as based on understanding meaning through referencing the poetic propositions to external realities. He clarifies that in this level, where poetry is read vertically from beginning to end, issues may arise that disrupt the reading and comprehension process. He that at this stage, the “superreader” must seek to discover the unifying factor hidden behind the apparent signs of the poem. According to Riffaterre, the superreader will be able to make other parts of the poem meaningful through uncovering this unifying factor, or what he terms the “matrix”. Riffaterre’s suggestion for reaching the matrix is a close reading of the poem. In this process, the reader discovers and extracts the text’s “lexical accumulations” and “descriptive systems” and strives to find the hidden meanings behind them. A significant part of the structuralist semiotics perspective is based on examining binary oppositions. In this approach, dual pairs in two opposing poles with positive and negative value charges organize a network of concepts in the text, where careful consideration can significantly aid in understanding the text’s complexities.
Research Method
This article employs a descriptive-analytical method, utilizing an approach derived from three theories: Michael Riffaterre’s semiotic reading, Halliday and Hasan’s theory of cohesion, and the theory of binary oppositions. Two ghazals by Hafez are analyzed and examined using this approach.
Conclusion
This article aims to evaluate the effectiveness of lexical connection analysis in resolving the semantic complexities of Hafez’s ghazals, focusing on two contentious verses. The analysis of these verses and the corresponding ghazals indicates that focusing on lexical connections and the networks formed by these connections, and attempting to extract the underlying sèmes, enables the proficient reader of Hafez to discern the overall atmosphere of the ghazals. Once this is achieved, a re-reading of the ghazal within this general atmosphere allows for the identification of the hidden significances and meanings of the poetry.
Nastaran Shahbazi; Fateme Toobaei; Fateme Jamshidi; Ehsan Hamidizadeh
Abstract
The modern concept of the story is considered a relatively new structural innovation. However, narrative elements have always been present in various forms of traditional tales and ancient narratives. These elements often reflect capacities that storytelling borrows from existing structures within everyday ...
Read More
The modern concept of the story is considered a relatively new structural innovation. However, narrative elements have always been present in various forms of traditional tales and ancient narratives. These elements often reflect capacities that storytelling borrows from existing structures within everyday language. For example, the structural resemblance between sentence syntax and plot composition illustrates how linguistic frameworks influence narrative design. Another noteworthy example is the use of pronouns to create narrative suspense or ambiguity. In this way, linguistic patterns from both historical and contemporary contexts can provide the foundation for storytelling. This study focuses on linguistic patterns, particularly those derived from spoken language, which have undergone functional transformations and are now employed in modern storytelling. These patterns, originally serving communicative purposes in oral traditions, highlight the adaptability of language and its evolving narrative roles. To illustrate the narrative potential of these linguistic features, it is essential first to investigate their origins and initial applications. Understanding how these patterns were historically employed helps trace their evolution into contemporary usage. The study also examines how these patterns differ in their application across modern texts, shedding light on the changes they have undergone. For better clarity, the linguistic patterns discussed are categorized systematically, and each category is paired with contemporary narrative examples. These examples illustrate the practical manifestations of these patterns in modern storytelling. By highlighting these transformations, the study demonstrates how linguistic conventions adapt to meet the demands of evolving narrative forms, enriching our understanding of the interplay between language and storytelling across time and contexts.
Introduction
The plural first-person pronoun does not always convey a collective meaning. Instances where this pronoun is metaphorically used to refer to a singular first person result in the formation of pseudo-plurals. These pseudo-plurals, which lend a conventional aspect to the pronoun “we,” serve various narrative functions. Broadly, based on the referential reliance of the plural pronoun either within or outside the text, it can be categorized into two types: exclusive and inclusive. The primary forms of the exclusive “we,” apart from its general usage as a humble form, include three distinct types: Royal, Sufi, and Authorial. In the humble form, the exclusive “we” is used as a plural first-person pronoun to refer to oneself out of respect for the audience. This usage is evident in the tone of fictional characters. Conversely, the Royal plural is a more rare application of the exclusive plural pronoun, characterized by its emphasis on self-aggrandizement. In this case, the singular speaker uses the plural pronoun to elevate and honor themselves. Historically, this usage has been less common due to its restriction to individuals holding high governmental positions or belonging to aristocratic families. On the other hand, the "Academic" plural represents an inclusive category in which the author considers themselves in alignment with the audience. This inclusive narrator constructs a discursive position that implies the existence of at least two narrative levels, one of which includes the narrator and “the other.” If “the other” refers to an entity outside the story, the resulting situation is termed Academic plural in this study. The Academic plural is a key subset of the inclusive narrator, reflecting the narrator’s knowledge and access to the story’s data. In other words, the narrator’s omniscience suggests a narrative authority that is well-suited to this form. This type of plural is employed in various ways, creating a platform for certain narrative forms. It constitutes a rhetorical strategy widely used in classical literature, where the narrator actively intervened in the text.
Literature Review
Nastaran Shahbazi and Hossein Bayat (2020), in their article titled “‘We’ Narrator Linguistic Potentials: First-person Plural Practicality in Narration”, examine the functional components of the logical definition of the first-person plural pronoun in storytelling. Mehrdad Naghzguy-Kohan (2017), in his article “The Formation of New First- and Second-Person Pronouns in Modern Persian from a Grammaticalization Perspective”, explores various forms of Persian pseudo-plurals under the subsection “Pseudo-Pluralization,” providing textual examples from Persian literature. Hossein Safi Piralujeh (2013), in his article “Explaining Boundary-Crossing in Modern Persian Fiction”, touches on a type of we-narration discussed in the present study, namely the scholarly plural, analyzing it from a narratological perspective. The same author, in his earlier work “Narrative Transformation in Folktales and Modern Persian Fiction” (2012), examines the Authorial plural discussed in the current study, focusing on its narrative applications. Nader Jahangiri, in his 1999 article “Forms of Respect, Dominance, and Solidarity in Contemporary Persian”, dedicates a section to the use of various types of conventional plurals and provides examples from spoken Persian. In addition to these limited studies, which sporadically touch on the subject under consideration, other related research has been utilized where relevant. However, no study with a similar alignment and focus on the present issue has been identified.
Methodology
By adopting a narratological framework and revisiting the underlying structures that gave rise to certain types of exclusive plurals, it becomes apparent that the assumption of their singular reference is not always definitive. The conventional nature of some of these forms might warrant reevaluation. In this regard, a hybrid approach can be utilized to investigate the underlying patterns. The sociological domain proves useful for examining contexts related to the regal plural, while the psychological domain aids in explaining the contexts of the Sufi plural. All conclusions stem from an analysis of the proposed concepts through the lens of the pragmatics of the first-person plural pronoun in Persian, within the broader framework of narratological studies. In this analytical study, textual samples from the corpus of contemporary literature, with a focus on fiction, are selected and their contextual foundations are individually examined. Using layered paradigms, such as psychology and sociology, this study aims to elucidate the multifaceted dimensions of the issue.
Discussion
The primary aim of this study is to demonstrate the impact of exclusive and inclusive first-person plural narrators on narrative elements. It appears that the function of the inclusive plural narrator introduces a distinct narrative level within the story, as the narrator aligns themselves with an extratextual audience. This technique, rooted in oral discourse traditions, has been integrated into written narratives, distinguishing the narrator’s role from other forms. Specifically, this research seeks to explore the mechanisms through which these forms, prevalent in classical Persian literature, employed the plural pronoun instead of the singular. Furthermore, it examines whether pseudo-plurals have potential applicability in contemporary fictional literature.
Conclusion
Unlike authentic we-narratives, which reflect the modern era’s inclination toward collectivism, conventional we-narratives have a long-standing history in literature and appear across various narrative genres. Specifically, four types of these narratives, with varying frequencies and adapted forms, are also present in contemporary fiction. Based on the exclusive/inclusive framework, three of these types (Royal we, Sufi we, and Authorial we) belong to the exclusive category, while one (Academic we) falls into the inclusive category. The Royal we and Sufi we originate from specific characters and contexts. Even today, these types enhance or strengthen character development, atmosphere, and narrative style in stories. The third type, the Authorial we, as its name suggests, refers to the author’s presence in the text, presenting themselves as “we.” This narrator may be one of the characters in the story who acknowledges their authorial role. Although this type is more common in academic writing, it can also be employed in fiction when the narrator seeks to impart an archaic tone to the narrative. The Authorial we can signify humility and adherence to a tradition or specific ideology, indicating the author’s alignment with a particular intellectual or cultural lineage. This is especially relevant in texts with didactic elements, where the genre and thematic markers allow interpretations of the author’s affiliations. For example, in mystical instructional texts, the author’s use of “we” may signify adherence to a particular school of thought or spiritual tradition. Finally, the Academic we represents an omniscient narrator who addresses the audience throughout the narrative, establishing a shared hypothetical space. This type of we-narrator resembles the oral storytelling tradition, assuming the role of a storyteller. By breaking narrative boundaries, it creates a dual structure: one level where the narrator is present and another comprising the narrated story itself.