somaye aghababaei; amirhoseyn jmali
Abstract
The examination of language with the goal of elucidating and exploring social constructs constitutes a crucial domain of scholarly inquiry. Drawing from a methodical and cohesive approach rooted in critical linguistics and critical discourse analysis, researchers can delve into how social concepts, such ...
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The examination of language with the goal of elucidating and exploring social constructs constitutes a crucial domain of scholarly inquiry. Drawing from a methodical and cohesive approach rooted in critical linguistics and critical discourse analysis, researchers can delve into how social concepts, such as ideology, prevalent discourses, power dynamics, and others, are conveyed through linguistic means. These concepts subsequently underpin literary creations, exerting influence over both the external realm and the internal perceptions of the audience through diverse modalities. In this analysis encompassing both linguistic and rhetorical dimensions, the constituent layers of the text are initially isolated. Subsequently, through a critical deconstruction of these elements, the underlying ideology of the author, serving as the fundamental pillar of the text, can be ascertained. A prominent figure of the Qajar era and the Naseri period, Farhad Mirza, a scion of the Qajar dynasty, emerges as one of the preeminent writers of his time. His work Monsha’at, crafted in emulation of Qaem Maqam’s Monsha’at and adhering to the epistolary conventions of the Qajar epoch, stands out as a distinguished exemplar of Naseri prose and represents his magnum opus. This investigation employs qualitative and quantitative methodologies to scrutinize the linguistic and rhetorical components within six personal, political, and official correspondences. The analysis reveals that missives imbued with political undertones or directed towards dignitaries feature intricate sentence structures and employ rhetorical devices such as vivid similes, nuanced metaphors, and subtextual meanings. Conversely, personal letters exhibit a paucity of rhetorical ornamentation, characterized by straightforward sentences devoid of implicit connotations. Across all the scrutinized letters, a prevalent use of the indicative mood, active voice, and copulative sentences denotes a pronounced sense of assertiveness in the text, reflective of the author's formidable authority
Introduction
Based on the science of rhetoric, researchers with an awareness of the ideology of content often consider rhetorical devices to be a function of the content of the text, which is effective in better representing the facts. In order to strengthen justification, argumentation, and persuasion of his audience with the help of rhetorical devices, the ideologist writer inserts his secondary intentions into the text in the form of exaggeration, exaggeration, contempt, irony, and other literary devices. Also, the linguistic analysis of a text, such as examining the type of sentences, the structure and aspect of verbs, and whether they are known or unknown, can be indicative and indicative of the ideological attitude of the author. By examining the rhetorical and linguistic devices of any text, it is possible to determine and analyze the degree of unmarked or markedness of the phrases, the author's style, the type of his ideological or non-ideological viewpoint, or even the extent of the author's involvement in each text or his neutrality.
Farhad Mirza Motamed al-Dowle, the son of Abbas Mirza, left behind a variety of works such as Monshaat, Sharh-e-Haal,… . Farhad Mirza had different and important experiences in political positions; his Menshaat and biography can reflect first-hand information about the ideology and power flow prevailing in his time. Among these works, his Book of Menshaat includes writings or letters whose audience in the Nasrid era was often dependent on the monarchy or government officials.
Literature Review
No scientific research has been conducted on the origins of Farhad Mirza, especially the study of its linguistic and rhetorical elements. Only Jabbari Manjili (2017) has introduced Farhad Mirza and his work, his origins and his vocabulary in the dictionary and composition of the book Monshaat Farhad Mirza Motamed al-Dowle, and has concluded that Farhad Mirza in his origins, in addition to writing in simplified Persian, also tried to write in full Persian. Other research has mainly focused on the rhetorical and linguistic study of the works in the field of critical stylistics. For example, Mirza Mohammadnia (2019) has analyzed Shamloo’s poems in the article “Critical Stylistics of Shamloo’s Poetry: Study of the Rhetorical and Pragmatic Layers.” In this research, one of Shamloo’s stylistic features, which is his norm-breaking view of mythology, has been studied under the pragmatic layer. In the rhetorical layer, in addition to studying literary crafts, two characteristics of archaism and repetition, which are related to the system of domination and power, have been studied. In his article “Layered Stylistics: A Contextual Description and Explanation of the Style of Ghazali’s Letter No. 1 in the Two Layers of Vocabulary and Rhetoric,” Dorpar (2014) analyzed the text into smaller layers, considering the situational context as the macro-layer, and by examining the literary arts of the text along with the codes, he paid attention to discovering the hidden ideology in the text of the letters. In his article “Meanings of Syntax, the Basis of Rhetoric in Siral-ul-Muluk of Nizam-ul-Molk,” Zaman Vaziri (2019) examines the layers of semantics in chapters thirty-nine and forty of Siral-ul-Muluk of Nizam-ul-Molk to show the effectiveness of this art in terms of the author’s intention in producing the text.
Methodology
The works of Farhad Mirza Qajar are thematically categorized into three forms, and this study examines six letters from these three categories. Among the political-governmental letters, letter number three, namely "Letter to Farmanfarma Fereydun Mirza " and letter number seventeen, namely "A Petition to Nasir al-Din Shah in Khorasan in Response to His Letter", among the letters to the nobles, letter number five, namely "A Letter to Ahmad Khan Khalaf, the Successor of the Late Abdul Hussein Khan in Isfahan" and letter number twelve, namely "A Letter to Mirza Mahmud Mullabashi Tasuji", and finally, among the personal letters, letter number twenty-five, namely "A Letter to the Nawab of the Royal Court" and letter number thirty-eight, namely "A Letter to One of the Nobles" have been selected and examined.
Discussion
Farhad Mirza always reminds us of his loyalty to this dynasty, whether in letters to the Shah and important people of the country or to friends and relatives, and if he criticizes something, he is careful not to damage the Shah's sanctity and dignity. These can be seen in components such as the use of news sentences, definite sentences, and attribution structures at a high frequency. In examining letters with different contexts, it was found that letters with a political context or addressed to elders have more technical prose; therefore, literary devices such as eloquent similes with intellectual aspects are seen in political letters with 35% and in letters from elders with 39%, non-verbal allusions in political letters with 42% and in letters from elders with 41%, metaphor and discrimination in political letters with 47% and in letters from elders with 32%. Also, this frequency of using rhetorical devices is in harmony with the use of compound sentences, definite constructions, and the declarative mood. In general, in all letters, the high frequency of definite verbs, the declarative mood, and attributive verbs indicates the speaker's certainty. Also, in letters of elders and political letters, unlike personal letters, the frequency of compound sentences is high, and in other words, most sentences in this type of text have implicit meanings such as reprimand, punishment, humiliation, reverence, and honor, etc.; while in personal letters, due to the intimate relationship between the addressee and the writer, the frequency of using simple sentences without implicit meanings is very high.
Conclusion
Finally, it should be noted that Farhad Mirza, considering the traditional mentality of the Qajar rulers, could not criticize the wrong approaches and harmful actions of the kings without considering his lineage to this dynasty. Therefore, it can be noted that he criticized by using rhetorical and linguistic devices in implicit and implied meanings in the hidden layers of the text. In other words, Farhad Mirza, by using adverbial and definite sentences along with implicit meanings with positive semantic load, always reminds of his devotion and loyalty to the king's reign; on the other hand, the use of secondary meanings in interrogative sentences expresses his complaint and criticism of some social issues such as drug use in the province or the lack of budget for the urban administration. The extensive use of literary devices such as simile, metaphor, and irony has caused his speech as a ruler and writer to have an impact on the audience. Also, the author emphasizes the great power and decisiveness of his words by using the declarative mood and the limited use of the imperative and subjunctive moods alongside definite and indicative sentences.
omid majd; Niloofar Ansari
Abstract
Language is one of the key components that influence the audience in various literary and artistic genres and serves as a valuable resource for understanding the social, political, and cultural dynamics of different historical periods. In other words, the study of language reveals the nature and structure ...
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Language is one of the key components that influence the audience in various literary and artistic genres and serves as a valuable resource for understanding the social, political, and cultural dynamics of different historical periods. In other words, the study of language reveals the nature and structure of human thoughts and ideas. Persian, like other languages, is not uniform across all geographical regions, historical periods, and social contexts. One of the significant factors contributing to this linguistic diversity is the presence of different subcultures within society, which give rise to various "language varieties." Throughout history, writers and poets have employed different language varieties to express their memories. This linguistic diversity has resulted in distinct stylistic features for each literary work. Accordingly, this study aims to examine the various language varieties in memoir writing from the Constitutional Revolution to the Islamic Revolution using a descriptive-analytical approach. The findings of the research highlight the linguistic differences in memoirs. Since cultural and social differences among various strata of society lead to linguistic and stylistic diversity, the language used in the memoirs of government officials differs significantly from that of cultural and social figures. For instance, the language of Sardar Maryam Bakhtiari's memoirs (colloquial and dialectal) contrasts sharply with that of Moshir al-Dowleh (standard and scholarly) or literary memoirs such as Waraq Pareh-ha-ye Zendan and Ruz-ha (literary and allegorical). IntroductionLanguage, influenced by geographical, cultural, and temporal factors, exhibits various forms shaped by the profound and pervasive cultural and social diversity of each society. The innovative expressions in memoir writing from the Constitutional Revolution to the Islamic Revolution reflect the vitality and richness of the Persian language. Memoir writing is a valuable resource for understanding the literary, linguistic, and stylistic structures of different historical periods. This phenomenon flourished after the Constitutional Revolution during the mid-Naseri era, influenced by modern European ideas, and attracted the attention of three groups: political figures, court officials, and literary-cultural personalities. Each group wrote memoirs for personal reasons, employing different language varieties to express their thoughts, beliefs, and personal lives, depending on their social status and target audience. Given the evident differences in the memoirs written by cultural, political, and court figures, this study aims to examine the linguistic distinctions among these three groups. MethodologyThis research adopts a descriptive-analytical approach. The findings are based on library research, drawing from historical and literary books and related materials. The study examines the different language varieties in memoir writing from the Constitutional Revolution to the Islamic Revolution. FindingsAmong the three groups of memoirists—cultural-social figures, political figures, and court officials—the use of dialectal and colloquial language is more prevalent among political figures, though this depends on the level of education of the memoirists. Those who received traditional education tended to use standard language, while colloquial and dialectal expressions were more common during the Constitutional Revolution compared to later periods. In the memoirs of court and political figures, the language and writing style do not adhere to the conventions of scientific or literary texts. Unlike literary memoirists, these writers are not bound by many writing principles. In contrast, memoirs written by poets and writers typically employ a highly literary and allegorical language. The type of vocabulary used, the linguistic differences among individuals with various professions and positions, the use of titles and honorifics, and similar elements can be extracted from memoirs with literary or political themes. The memoirs of political and court figures from each period have their own distinct language and style, maintaining a consistent tone throughout the text. In contrast, literary memoirists have the freedom to choose specific literary language and vocabulary based on the subject matter, using either formal or colloquial language and incorporating words popular during their time. This provides researchers with a comprehensive overview of the literary and cultural conditions of the period. ConclusionIn the study of language varieties, attention must be paid to different types, including scholarly, literary, colloquial, dialectal, vernacular, and professional. These linguistic varieties are the starting point for differences in the style and content of memoirs. Despite the wide range of language varieties, the language of memoirs generally falls into three categories: literary, standard, and colloquial. Memoirs are written for various reasons, such as self-justification, bias against others, revealing personal lives, discussing political and social issues, and depicting the conditions of the time. The difference in their audiences—general public versus specific groups—is one of the factors contributing to linguistic variation . Many memoirs are written in a literary (descriptive and indirect) style, where the author or poet seeks to convey their message through elaborate language, using literary and allegorical techniques to express unspoken aspects of their personal lives. In contrast, many memoirs written by political figures use standard and simple language, guiding the reader to understand the author's intentions without adhering to many writing principles. Additionally, many memoirs are written in dialectal and colloquial language, with authors using coarse and impolite words to express personal motives.
Reza Ghanbari Abdolmaleki
Abstract
This article focuses on the linguistic and semiotic dimensions of Sohrab Sepehri's poem To the Garden of Companions, analyzed from the perspective of Peircean semiotics. The main aim of the study is to examine the interaction of linguistic structures and signs in this poem at three levels: iconic, indexical, ...
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This article focuses on the linguistic and semiotic dimensions of Sohrab Sepehri's poem To the Garden of Companions, analyzed from the perspective of Peircean semiotics. The main aim of the study is to examine the interaction of linguistic structures and signs in this poem at three levels: iconic, indexical, and symbolic, to illuminate how the connection between language, humanity, and nature, along with philosophical and spiritual concepts, is represented. The research method is descriptive-analytical, emphasizing the role of the system of signs in generating textual meaning. The findings reveal that iconic images such as “lush greenery” and “anemones,” besides reflecting sensory and visual characteristics, carry complex semantic layers that convey the poet's inner and spiritual experiences to the audience. At the indexical level, signs like “fountain hands” and “rain and desert” use causal and temporal links to depict Sepehri’s lived experiences and their relationship with natural elements and the passage of time. Finally, at the symbolic level, images such as “the word in the line of silence” represent transcending linguistic limitations and the search for deeper meaning. The semiotic analysis of this poem shows that Sepehri, by blending different semiotic levels and leveraging linguistic potentials, has created a multi-layered and thought-provoking piece that, in addition to its visual and linguistic beauty, represents themes such as the spiritual bond between humans and nature, the philosophy of love, and the pursuit of existential truth.
Introduction
The article situates Charles Sanders Peirce’s triadic model of semiotics—comprising icons, indices, and symbols—as a key theoretical framework for analyzing literary texts. This model provides a comprehensive explanation of how signs interact with meanings, enabling them to reflect human experiences through both linguistic and non-linguistic systems. From this perspective, poetry transcends its aesthetic form and becomes a rich and intricate system of signs, capable of unveiling profound and layered meanings. By employing Peirce’s semiotic approach, the article seeks to explore the ways in which Sohrab Sepehri’s poem integrates aesthetic, philosophical, and linguistic dimensions, offering insights into its deeper conceptual layers.
Peirce’s semiotic theory emphasizes the dynamic relationship between the sign, its object, and its interpretant, making it particularly effective for analyzing literary works that are inherently multi-dimensional. Poetry, with its reliance on metaphor, imagery, and symbolism, serves as an ideal subject for such an analysis. Through this lens, the article examines how Sepehri’s poetic structures and signs are interwoven to convey a complex interplay of meaning, reflecting his engagement with universal themes such as spirituality, humanity, and the natural world.
While Sohrab Sepehri’s poetry has been extensively studied within Persian literary scholarship, the application of Peirce’s semiotics to his work remains relatively unexplored. Most prior studies have focused on thematic, stylistic, or mystical interpretations of his poems, leaving a gap in understanding the semiotic underpinnings of his imagery and linguistic constructs. Analyzing Sepehri’s poetic images through Peirce’s triadic model not only reveals their aesthetic appeal but also uncovers their potential to communicate profound philosophical and spiritual ideas. This article aims to bridge this gap by offering a detailed and systematic exploration of the semiotic dimensions of Sepehri’s poem To the Garden of Fellow Travelers.
By addressing these aspects, the research highlights the unique way in which Sepehri uses language and imagery to transcend the limitations of conventional expression. His poetry becomes a medium through which the interconnectedness of language, nature, and human experience is expressed, underscoring his philosophical worldview. This detailed examination not only contributes to a deeper understanding of Sepehri’s work but also underscores the broader applicability of Peirce’s semiotic framework in contemporary literary analysis.
Literature Review
The article reviews studies in Persian literature employing Peirce’s semiotics, noting that most have focused on classical Persian texts, such as mystical and epic works, with limited attention to contemporary Iranian poetry. Researchers like Mirbaqeri-Fard and Najafi (2009) and Heydari (2014, 2016) have applied Peirce’s model to analyze mystical and narrative elements in classical texts. Studies by Sobhani and Veysi (2022) have examined natural elements in Sepehri’s poetry, though with different methodologies. This study contributes by applying Peirce’s framework to contemporary Persian poetry, specifically Sepehri’s work.
Methodology
The study employs a descriptive-analytical method grounded in Peirce’s semiotics. It identifies and interprets iconic, indexical, and symbolic signs in Sepehri’s poem. Iconic analysis focuses on sensory connections, indexical analysis explores causal relationships, and symbolic analysis uncovers metaphorical and conceptual meanings. This approach highlights Sepehri’s spiritual, philosophical, and existential experiences, emphasizing the interconnectedness of humans, nature, and meaning.
Discussion
The discussion analyzes the poem through Peirce’s three semiotic levels:
Iconic Analysis: Iconic images like "verdure," "poppy," and "the hands of the fountain" are analyzed for their sensory qualities and deeper meanings. For instance, "verdure" symbolizes life and growth, while "poppy" signifies warmth and resilience.
Indexical Analysis: Indexical signs such as "rain and desert" and "the surface of the concrete century" highlight causal and temporal connections. These signs link Sepehri’s personal experiences to broader themes like time, nature, and modernity. For example, the contrast between natural cycles and industrial time underscores Sepehri’s critique of modernity.
Symbolic Analysis: Symbolic signs, including "a word in the silent line" and "the descent of the pear," carry cultural and spiritual meanings. These symbols transcend literal interpretations, pointing to existential and metaphysical truths. For instance, "the descent of the pear" represents the purity of nature contrasted with industrialization.
The interrelations between these levels contribute to the poem’s overall meaning. The iconic, indexical, and symbolic layers create a multi-dimensional narrative reflecting Sepehri’s philosophical and spiritual concerns.
Conclusion
Sepehri’s poem "To the Garden of Fellow Travelers" explores the relationship between humans, nature, and existential meaning. By employing iconic, indexical, and symbolic signs, Sepehri crafts a multi-layered poetic experience that transcends aesthetic beauty. The poem invites readers to reflect on themes like the passage of time, the spiritual bond between humans and nature, and the search for deeper truths in a modern world. Using Peirce’s semiotic framework, the study reveals how Sepehri communicates complex ideas, enriching contemporary Persian literature.
solmaz ebrahimzadehdolatabad; iman mehriibayg; shapour noorazar; fatemeh shaykhlovand
Abstract
The literary genre of the novel is one of the genres in which the different use of language has led to stylistic differences between male and female novelists. This stems on the one hand from differences in their personal and social experiences, and on the other hand from the gender differences and worldviews ...
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The literary genre of the novel is one of the genres in which the different use of language has led to stylistic differences between male and female novelists. This stems on the one hand from differences in their personal and social experiences, and on the other hand from the gender differences and worldviews of these writers. Fariba Vafi, in her works, deals with the description of women, their place in society, and their attitude towards their own identity. The characters Vafi introduces sometimes lose their dominance in the social arena and display their damaged identities. Identity is Vafi's main concern in her novels. The novella My Bird is the most powerful contemporary novel in addressing the issue of women's identity. In her novels, especially My Bird and the Dream of Tibat, Fariba Vafi speaks of women who have not achieved a clear understanding of themselves and others; women who usually look at their surroundings with pessimism. Societal expectations of men and women in various domains lead to different social behaviors and also influence their linguistic behavior. Therefore, gender as a non-linguistic factor in male and female speakers creates extensive linguistic differences that can be examined and are noteworthy at three levels: vocabulary, sentences, and discourse. Introduction The novel, as a literary genre, exhibits stylistic differences between male and female authors due to variations in language use. These differences stem from disparities in personal and social experiences as well as gender and worldview. Fariba Vafi, in his works, portrays women, their societal roles, and their perspectives on identity. The characters she introduces often lose their dominance in social settings, revealing their fractured identities. Identity is the central concern in Vafi's novels. The short novel My Bird is one of the most powerful contemporary works addressing the issue of women's identity. In her novels, particularly My Bird and Dream of Tibet, Vafi speaks of women who have not achieved a clear sense of self or others—women who often view their surroundings with skepticism. Societal expectations of men and women in various domains lead to different social behaviors, which also influence their linguistic behavior. Thus, gender, as a non-linguistic factor, creates significant linguistic differences between male and female speakers, observable at three levels: vocabulary, sentences, and discourse. MethodologyThis descriptive-analytical study, using library resources, seeks to answer the main question:To what extent do the stylistic components of "female characters' language" in Fariba Vafi’s novels align with Sara Mills' proposed components at the levels of "discourse," "vocabulary," and "sentences"? FindingsThe findings of this study reveal that female characters in Vafi's novels predominantly use standard language and rarely employ colloquial speech. One reason for this could be the social class of the women in these works, who are mostly educated and affluent. It must be acknowledged that Vafi has accurately crafted the language of his works in terms of standard and conservative usage, aligning with linguistic stereotypes of male and female language. On the other hand, a feminine atmosphere and spirit dominate these novels, which may stem from women's inherent tendency toward politeness in social behaviors, including linguistic behavior. Instead of using vulgar or highly offensive words—characteristics of male language—women in these works use less harsh and impolite words when necessary. Additionally, the use of colloquial vocabulary is minimal, clearly reflecting the influence of the author's gender on the narrative language. Discussion A comparison of the results indicates that the use of authoritative language by female and male characters is significant and aligns with linguistic stereotypes and Mills' proposed components. This is because women tend to use polite language, which limits their use of authoritative or intensifying forms. Vafi has paid attention to the gender of his characters in creating "authoritative language." Women in his novels are polite and "participatory" in their speech, rarely using commands or authoritative sentences. Statistical results related to women's language in the two novels show that, despite differences in the novels' themes, there is no significant variation in the use of gender markers, and the author maintains a relatively consistent frequency pattern. Conclusion In the discussed novels, a significant portion of the verbal actions and reactions of female characters arise from the cultural context of a patriarchal society. The women in these novels, due to low self-confidence resulting from living in patriarchal societies, use more hedges, intensifiers, and approximators. They avoid offensive words and opt for indirect requests, choosing polite language for their dialogues. Some of these words are related to biological distinctions and women-specific activities, while others are tied to women's particular concerns and preoccupations. The frequency of these words reflects the author's precise and distinctly feminine perspective, successfully creating a tangible and natural world and drawing feminine vocabulary from the lived experiences of women. The lexicon of feminine vocabulary in these novels primarily focuses on the emotional and psychological dimensions of women, followed by words related to physical and biological distinctions, as well as social and familial activities. Another characteristic of women's language in these novels is the use of imagery and attention to detail. In both works, approximately one-quarter of the total vocabulary used benefits from the characteristics of feminine language.
FAHIMEH SABEGHI
Abstract
The Golestan by Saʿdi has been officially translated into Chinese four times: twice by Muslim translators and twice by non-Muslim translators, one of them was indirectly translated from English and the other directly from Persian. Despite the text’s historical importance in China’s Muslim ...
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The Golestan by Saʿdi has been officially translated into Chinese four times: twice by Muslim translators and twice by non-Muslim translators, one of them was indirectly translated from English and the other directly from Persian. Despite the text’s historical importance in China’s Muslim Community, these translations have not yet undergone systematic analysis or comparison. This study examines these translations, evaluating linguistic and structural inconsistencies, omissions, and additions compared to the original Persian text. Using Gholamhossein Yousefi’s edited version as the reference, the translations were analyzed on lexical and syntactic levels and assessed for structural fidelity, including the inclusion and arrangement of stories. The study applied a comparative analytical method, evaluating each part in the Chinese translations against the original Persian text. Key research questions addressed the linguistic accuracy of these translations, conceptual errors, and the influence of the translators’ cultural and religious backgrounds on the Quality of translation. Findings reveal significant issues in four areas: pronoun gender shifts, mistranslations of names and places, interpretive additions by translators, and structural modifications, such as story omissions or rearrangements. Surprisingly, non-Muslim translators, owing to their methodological rigor, produced translations closer to the original text, whereas Muslim translators, influenced by religious considerations, introduced more deviations. The study underscores the importance of revisiting classical Persian works translated into Chinese, advocating collaboration between Iranian scholars and Chinese translators to enhance the fidelity and accessibility of such translations for Chinese readers.
Introduction
The masterpiece of Persian classical literature, Golestan by Saʿdi, has profoundly influenced Chinese culture, particularly within the Muslim community, for centuries. Since the early eighth century AH (14th century CE), it has been a foundational text in the curriculum of Islamic schools across China, serving as a critical resource for teaching Persian. Despite its historical and educational significance, the Golestan's first official Chinese translation appeared only in 1947, produced by Akhund Wang, a Muslim scholar. Three subsequent translations followed, authored by Shui Jianfu, Yang Wanbao, and Zhang Hongnian. This study is the first comprehensive comparative analysis of these four Chinese translations. Its primary objective is to evaluate their linguistic and structural alignment with the Persian original as edited by Gholamhossein Yousefi and to examine the influence of the translators’ cultural, religious, and methodological orientations. The research addresses key questions: How do the translations differ linguistically and conceptually? What errors, omissions, or interpretive deviations exist, and how do these affect the conveyance of Saʿdi’s ideas? To what extent do the translators’ cultural and religious backgrounds shape their decisions? Finally, which translation best preserves the Golestan's literary and thematic essence?
Literature Review
Alexander Jabbari (2020) explores cultural and political adaptations in Yang Wanbao's 2000 Chinese translation of Golestan, emphasizing alignment with Confucian, Buddhist, and state ideologies. Sara Almasie (2018) examines the accuracy of Quranic verses in Golestan's Chinese translations. This study uniquely compares four translations directly with the Persian text, addressing gaps in prior research.
Methodology
To answer these questions, the study employs a comparative analytical approach. Each translation was analyzed story by story, with reference to Yousefi’s authoritative edited version of the Golestan. The analysis focuses on linguistic features, such as word choice, syntax, and stylistic nuances, as well as structural considerations like the organization and sequencing of stories. Additionally, it evaluates cultural and ideological fidelity, assessing how closely each translation reflects Saʿdi’s intent while considering the translators’ interpretations and contextual adaptations. By identifying recurring patterns and unique characteristics, the study provides insights into the translators’ strategies and challenges.
Discussion
The findings reveal significant variations in linguistic precision and structural fidelity across the translations. Muslim scholars Akhund Wang and Yang Wanbao introduced ideological modifications and cultural adaptations that often diverge from the original text. For example, their translations frequently altered or omitted stories they perceived as conflicting with the moral and religious values of Chinese Muslim communities. Common issues include changing the gender of pronouns, mistranslating names and places, and adding interpretive commentary that shifts the meaning of the text. While these choices reflect the translators’ cultural and religious priorities, they compromise the fidelity of their work to Saʿdi’s original language and themes. In contrast, translations by non-Muslim scholars Shui Jianfu and Zhang Hongnian demonstrate greater methodological rigor and a stronger commitment to textual accuracy. Shui Jianfu’s translation, based on Edward Eastwick’s English rendering rather than the Persian original, benefits from Eastwick’s detailed annotations and contextual explanations, resulting in a relatively accurate transmission of Saʿdi’s ideas. However, Zhang Hongnian’s translation, rendered directly from Persian, stands out as the most precise and comprehensive. With deep expertise in Persian studies, Zhang captures both the linguistic subtleties and literary essence of the Golestan.
5. Conclusion
The study highlights the evolving quality of the Golestan's Chinese translations over time. Akhund Wang’s pioneering 1947 translation reflects the limited resources and linguistic tools available in mid-20th-century China. It contains numerous omissions, interpretive rewritings, and structural inconsistencies, making it less reliable as a faithful representation of the original text. Yang Wanbao’s later work claims to be the most complete Chinese translation but suffers from significant errors, including incorrect pronoun usage, stylistic inconsistencies, and deviations from the tone of Saʿdi’s prose. By contrast, the non-Muslim translators, particularly Zhang Hongnian, demonstrate that linguistic expertise and methodological precision are more critical than cultural or religious affinity in producing high-quality translations of Persian literature. This study identifies four primary categories of translation issues: changes in gendered pronouns, mistranslation of proper nouns, addition of interpretive commentary, and alterations in the sequence or number of stories. These categories are analyzed in relation to the translators’ cultural and ideological motivations. The findings suggest that Muslim translators, driven by a desire to align the Golestan with Islamic values, made deliberate modifications that sometimes undermined textual fidelity. Conversely, non-Muslim translators, unencumbered by such ideological constraints, were better able to maintain the integrity of Saʿdi’s original intent and literary style. Ultimately, this research underscores the importance of revisiting and refining Chinese translations of Persian classics, particularly the Golestan, through collaborative efforts between Iranian and Chinese scholars. While the Golestan holds an enduring place in Chinese literary and educational traditions, its translations reveal the complexities of conveying Persian literary and cultural heritage to Chinese audiences. In conclusion, this study provides a valuable framework for future research on Persian-Chinese literary translations. By identifying the strengths and weaknesses of existing translations, it calls for a more nuanced and collaborative approach to promoting Persian literature in Chinese cultural contexts. The enduring relevance of Saʿdi’s Golestan lies not only in its literary brilliance but also in its potential to foster deeper cross-cultural understanding through improved translation practices.
majid rastandeh; vahid Mobarak
Abstract
Persian literature, particularly its mystical genre, has a long-standing connection with the Holy Quran and Hadith. Beyond the conventional use of these two important Islamic sources, poets have sometimes directly quoted verses and hadiths, at other times engaged in interpretation (ta'wil), and in some ...
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Persian literature, particularly its mystical genre, has a long-standing connection with the Holy Quran and Hadith. Beyond the conventional use of these two important Islamic sources, poets have sometimes directly quoted verses and hadiths, at other times engaged in interpretation (ta'wil), and in some instances, even deconstructed their structures. Attar Nishapuri is among the mystic interpreters. Through metaphor, allusion, and allegory, he interprets in a simple and fluent language, often employing "the language of allusion and symbolism." His structural or linguistic interpretations are presented in three forms: word-centered (lexical-metaphorical), sentence-centered (organic, following the structure of compound similes), and cluster-based (similar to conceptual metaphors). These interpretations gain rhetorical depth through the use of literary elements such as allusion, simile, allegory, metaphor, metonymy, irony, symbol, hyperbole, ambiguity, irony, and poetic justification. In terms of content, Attar, in line with his mystical approach, offers innovative and deconstructive interpretations with mystical, ethical, and social themes, sometimes even bridging mythological and mystical symbols. This study, which reports on a descriptive-analytical research, addresses the question: "Which rhetorical methods did Attar of Nishapur employ in his interpretations within his works?" Attar, in his interpretations, uses allusion, allegory, and metaphor to connect the literary aspect of the text with mystical, religious, and didactic points, often through ironic, symbolic, and allusive expressions. This approach ensures that the text retains its literary-rhetorical flavor while avoiding the monotony that might arise from overly explicit or dry discussions.
Introduction
Ta'wil, meaning the return to the origin of something, has its roots in various interpretations of religious texts and scriptures. While ta'wil and hermeneutics in the West differ from those practiced in Muslim countries and Iran, it appears that both rational, intellectual thought and inner, intuitive discovery play a role in the process of interpretation. In the East, intuitive interpretations are accepted provided they do not contradict the established meaning. The Holy Quran, the Prophetic tradition, and the methods of the prophets have deeply influenced all aspects of Muslim life. Islamic mysticism, and by extension Persian mysticism, has also adhered to the Quran and the Prophetic tradition in practice and methodology. Thus, referencing Quranic verses and engaging in their interpretation (sometimes to validate personal views) is a recurring feature in the poetic and prose works of Persian mystics. Ta'wil is also evident in the sayings of the Imams, including Imam Sadiq (peace be upon him), who described the Imams as guiding stars for humanity. Farid al-Din Attar Nishapuri, a mystic of the 6th and early 7th centuries AH, is considered a precursor to Rumi, with Rumi himself referencing Attar’s works. Attar’s writings are imbued with mysticism and are heavily influenced by his use of ta'wil to establish the validity of his teachings. For instance, his interpretation of the Conference of the Birds (Manteq al-Tayr), where the Simurgh represents the divine truth and the thirty birds symbolize spiritual seekers, or the story of Sheikh Sanʿan, who, despite his spiritual rank, achieves salvation through complete submission, exemplifies his interpretive approach.
Materials and Methods
This study aims to identify the various forms of ta'wil (lexical, sentence-based, and cluster-based) in Attar’s works and explore their connection to rhetorical and literary elements. The methodology involves first describing the stories, words, or sentences that have been interpreted, then analyzing the rhetorical techniques used in the ta'wil to highlight their metaphorical, allegorical, and other literary dimensions. The analysis emphasizes that Attar bases his interpretations on the distant meanings of words, their concrete examples, or similar claims or stories, often employing similes and analogies to enhance their effectiveness.
Discussion
The term ta'wil is used for "understanding the inner meaning of speech," "citing concrete examples," and "moving from the apparent to the probable meaning." Metaphor, simile, and allegory form the foundation of ta'wil. A notable feature of Attar’s interpretations is his literary language. Using simple and fluent language, he employs metaphor, allusion, simile, poetic justification, irony, allegory, and other rhetorical devices without resorting to complex or obscure terminology. He directs the content of mythological, historical, and religious allusions toward mysticism and its subtleties, thereby renewing and enriching familiar mystical teachings. Attar’s mystical interpretations are divided into structural (linguistic and rhetorical) and content-based (concrete examples). He uses metaphor, allusion, and allegory, often with a simple and fluent language, sometimes employing "the language of allusion" and symbolism. His structural or linguistic interpretations are presented in three forms: word-centered (lexical-metaphorical), sentence-centered (organic, following the structure of compound similes), and cluster-based (similar to conceptual metaphors). These interpretations gain rhetorical depth through literary elements such as allusion, simile, allegory, metaphor, metonymy, irony, symbol, hyperbole, ambiguity, irony, and poetic justification. In terms of content, Attar offers innovative and deconstructive interpretations with mystical, ethical, and social themes, sometimes bridging mythological and mystical symbols. For example, in Tazkirat al-Awliya (Attar, 1370/1991: 186-187), Attar interprets the "Throne" (Arsh) as the heart of the mystic. Bayazid Bastami, in a spiritual journey, reaches the Throne and seeks the Merciful. The Throne directs him to the broken heart, citing the Quranic verse: "I am near to the broken-hearted" (Quran 2:186). Bayazid’s interpretation of the verse "The Merciful is established on the Throne" (Quran Taha:5) is hermeneutically deconstructive. He describes the Throne as a "hungry, blood-stained wolf," reducing its sanctity to emphasize the value of the human heart, which he interprets as the true Throne of the Merciful. This interpretation is rooted in the hadith: "The heart of the believer is the Throne of the Merciful." Bayazid’s hermeneutic approach is holistic, where each part of the interpretation is interconnected, forming a hermeneutic circle, as described by Schleiermacher: "The part is understood within the framework of the whole, and vice versa" (Nietzsche, Heidegger, Gadamer, et al., 1395: 7).
Conclusion
The symbolic and allegorical nature of Attar’s works, along with his numerous interpretations of Quranic verses, hadiths, myths, and history, lends a unique character to his texts. Attar’s ta'wil is divided into structural or linguistic (word-centered, sentence-centered, and cluster-based) and content-based (concrete examples), presented through rhetorical forms such as allusion, simile, and metaphor. He interprets the soul as Nimrod and Pharaoh, the heart as Moses, trust as love, and the prostration of angels to Adam as a symbol of divine proximity. His interpretations of Quranic verses, hadiths, and terms (such as zakat as teaching knowledge) or mythological (e.g., Rostam) and historical (e.g., Moses) elements are achieved through allegory, metaphor, simile, poetic justification, and irony. Poetic justification often alters the content of his stories, leading to interpretations that defend the actions of Iblis or Adam’s error. Ironic expressions in his discourse result in ecstatic utterances (shathiyyat). Attar’s interpretations are adorned with rhetorical devices to make his speech novel and impactful, with metaphor, simile, allusion, poetic justification, and allegory being the most frequent. His interpretations frequently revolve around Quranic verses and hadiths, often focusing on Adam, Iblis, the Throne, trust, Nimrod, and Pharaoh.