Ahmad Rezaei; Samira Akkasheh
Abstract
AbstractCognitive metaphor serves as both a framework and a model through which the human mind comprehends the world. By reflecting intangible concepts in language and generating new meanings through linguistic phenomena, it forges a connection between language, mind, and reality. Naturally, the external ...
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AbstractCognitive metaphor serves as both a framework and a model through which the human mind comprehends the world. By reflecting intangible concepts in language and generating new meanings through linguistic phenomena, it forges a connection between language, mind, and reality. Naturally, the external world and its historical developments influence the mind and, consequently, language—a process in which many concepts manifest as cognitive metaphors. With the advent of the modern era, numerous concepts emerged, were recreated, or transformed as cognitive metaphors within various structures of the Persian language, particularly in verb constructions, taking on a different pace and form compared to earlier periods. Among the works written during this modern period is the Travel diary of Ebrahim Beg (Siyahatnameh-ye Ebrahim Beg). As one of the early works of modern Persian prose, this text appears to exemplify the evolution of cognitive metaphors in verb constructions. This study, using the said work as its corpus, employs an inductive-analytical method to examine and analyze the influence of cognitive metaphors on the verb structures in the text. The findings reveal that ontological metaphors are highly prevalent in verb constructions, while structural metaphors play a lesser role. Orientation metaphors, on the other hand, exert influence only in certain verbs. Introductiona factor contributing to the formation, transformation, and structural-conceptual expansion of verbs is cognitive metaphor. As a semantic phenomenon, cognitive metaphor represents human mental concepts based on lived experiences and changes in the surrounding world. It serves as a cognitive tool that shapes mental concepts and, subsequently, linguistic expressions. The creation, innovation, and transformation of metaphors occur across the linguistic system, with verbs being one such domain. Analyzing verbs across different periods within a systematic corpus can illuminate the processes of creation, innovation, and change in cognitive metaphors manifested in this aspect of language. The Constitutional Era, marking the beginning of Iran’s modern period, brought profound societal, lifestyle, and experiential transformations, inevitably altering linguistic components as reflective tools. Thus, examining various linguistic aspects of texts from this period can effectively elucidate the trajectory of such changes. The Travel diary of Ebrahim Beg, as one of the earliest works of this era and a foundational text in the emergence of the Persian novel, serves as a suitable corpus for investigating the impact of cognitive metaphors on verb constructions. Background of the ResearchNo independent study has yet examined cognitive metaphors and verbs in the Travel diary of Ebrahim Beg. However, the following works are relevant to this field: Gandomkar (2009), in A semantic study of body-part compound verbs in Persian, briefly addresses the semantic core of compound verbs involved in schematization. Rastgoo (2015), in Semantic change in Persian words based on historical semantics, categorizes semantic shifts into intralinguistic (e.g., metonymy, metaphor) and extralinguistic (e.g., political, social factors), a classification useful for cognitive metaphor analysis. Shariatmadari (2017), in his thesis A study of metaphorical verbs in conceptualization based on conceptual metaphor theory, focuses solely on the source and target domains of simple verbs within a specified corpus. MethodologyThis study adopts an inductive-analytical approach to examine a corpus of verbs from the Travel diary of Ebrahim Beg, analyzing the types of cognitive metaphors present, their role in verb construction, and the relationship between social changes and cognitive metaphors in verbs. It seeks to determine the extent to which different cognitive metaphors influence verb constructions in the text and their frequency of occurrence. DiscussionThe analysis of verbs in the Travel diary is based on a classification of cognitive metaphors. Given the layered nature of metaphorical concepts, verbs are analyzed eclectically. The study’s framework first categorizes verbs into ontological, structural, and orientation metaphors, considering linguistic context. After frequency analysis, these metaphors are further classified as “inner-central,” “outer-central,” or “balanced.” The results identify which types of verbs (compound, simple, prefixed, or phrasal) are most frequent in each metaphorical category and which elements (verb or non-verb) dominate the metaphorical meaning. Here, “centrality” refers to the morphological core of the verb, with “inner-central” and “outer-central” denoting whether the metaphorical meaning arises from within the verb itself or its accompanying elements. ConclusionThe study confirms the presence of all types of conceptual metaphors in the Travel diary, yet only ontological and orientation metaphors directly influence verb structures. Among compound, simple, prefixed, and phrasal verbs, no “inner-central” instances were found, highlighting the significance of contextual elements in forming metaphorical meanings. Ontological metaphors are the most prevalent in shaping verb-based metaphors, followed by orientational metaphors. Overall, the findings demonstrate that non-verbal elements play a crucial role in creating metaphorical meanings, even surpassing verbal and morphological components in frequency.
Alireza Nabilou; Fateme Houshangi Shayan
Abstract
In this study, a comparative analysis of Simin Daneshvar’s novel Suvashun was conducted based on Leslie Jeffries’ ten stylistic components, to examine the influence of the author’s ideology on language. Rooted in cultural and sociological frameworks, these components facilitate more ...
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In this study, a comparative analysis of Simin Daneshvar’s novel Suvashun was conducted based on Leslie Jeffries’ ten stylistic components, to examine the influence of the author’s ideology on language. Rooted in cultural and sociological frameworks, these components facilitate more in-depth analysis of the text. The findings indicate that Jeffries’ components—including naming, describing, representing actions/events/states, equating and contrasting, exemplifying and enumerating, prioritizing, implying and assuming, negation, hypothesizing, and representing time and space— have been used as linguistic tools for conveying ideologies such as “resistance” and “love for the homeland.” Among these, contrasting has the highest frequency (23.59%), reflecting significant tension among characters and even abstract concepts such as tradition and modernity. Hypothesizing, with a frequency of 8.87%, indicates the author’s tendency to indirectly convey ideologies and an ideal society to avoid being accused. Conversely, prioritizing has the lowest frequency (1.57%), suggesting that the author does not wish to impose a specific conceptual hierarchy on the reader but instead creates space for the audience to reflect on the importance and influence of topics.
Introduction
Modern literary analysis has moved beyond traditional methods, requiring the examination of cultural, social, political, and historical contexts. This approach uncovers deeper meanings in literary works and enriches the reading experience. Critical stylistics, rooted in critical discourse analysis, investigates social and cultural structures embedded in texts through concepts such as discourse, ideology, and power. Theorists such as Roger Fowler and Paul Simpson emphasize the connection between language and the writer’s worldview, arguing that language reflects social attitudes and meanings. Leslie Jeffries, in his book, Critical Stylistics (2010), systematizes this connection through ten analytical tools. This method, by analyzing the impact of ideology on language, uncovers implicit ideologies and social meanings, creating a foundation for more in-depth literary research.
Materials and Methods:
This descriptive-analytical study examines the relationship between the author’s linguistic choices, his worldview, and the socio-political context influencing the narrative. Through a critical stylistic approach, the research demonstrates how linguistic elements reflect ideologies and power structures within society. The study examines themes such as the tension between tradition and modernity, the role of women, and the socio-political dynamics of the Pahlavi era. Additionally, it shows how historical and cultural transformations have influenced the author’s language and narration.
Discussion and Analysis
Naming and Describing: In Suvashun, the author emphasizes specific identities and key events more through names (70 instances) than descriptions (44 instances). However, descriptions add depth to the complexity of characters and situations, enriching the narrative by balancing identity clarity with the layered meanings of the story.
Representing Actions/Events/States: The frequency of actions (26 instances), states (15 instances), and events (7 instances) suggests that the author focuses more on the actions and reactions than on major events. States, though less frequent, highlight the emotional and psychological conditions of characters, thus emphasizing human relationships and internal responses to social events.
Equating and Contrasting: Contrasting, with 226 occurrences, is the most prevalent stylistic element, playing a fundamental role in shaping social and cultural concepts. These oppositions include tradition vs. modernity and men vs. women, among other social dichotomies. Additionally, equating (63 instances), categorized into semantic and conversational types, enhances semantic richness and represents the everyday language and social interactions of the characters.
Exemplifying and Enumerating: Daneshvar employs 79 instances of “exemplification” and 55 instances of “enumeration” to depict society during wartime. Concrete examples reveal social realities, while abstract examples reflect internal emotions. Additionally, enumerating serves as a tool for critiquing socio-political issues, and exemplification conveys deeper meanings.
Prioritizing: Prioritizing is achieved through two techniques: “fronting “and “cleft sentences”. Fronting emphasizes key messages, while cleft sentences highlight specific details, enhancing narrative impact.
Implying and Assuming: An analysis of implicature in Suvashun identifies 41 instances, predominantly related to social, cultural, political, and anti-colonial themes.
Negation: Negation (47 instances), expressed through negative verbs and pronouns (e.g., nobody, nothing), underscores themes of oppression and injustice. This structure functions both grammatically and as a literary device to convey suffering and invite reflection on social issues.
Hypothesizing: Suvashun, uses 85 instances of hypothesizing and tools like modality, speech acts, and conditional structures to critique social issues and reflect the aspirations of society. These techniques emphasize ethical commitments, hope, and internal tensions.
Representing Others’ Speech and Thought: The novel contains 73 instances of speech representation, predominantly in direct form, and 27 instances of thought representation, mainly direct. While direct speech fosters an immediate connection with characters, direct thought representation may suggest an imposition of the author’s interpretations onto the text.
Representing Time, Space, and Society: Suvashun features 46 instances of time representation, 19 of space, and 20 of society. Locations symbolize identity and power, time is presented non-linearly to reinforce historical identity, and social and class inequalities resulting from Alien Presence are vividly depicted.
Conclusion
Suvashun is a multilayered and realistic novel that portrays the social, political, and cultural complexities of its time. By focusing on both internal and external conflicts of characters and society, the novel critiques socio-political conditions and reveals the author’s perspective on societal challenges on contemporary challenges. A key feature of this novel is its portrayal of social issues from a female perspective, which adds unique dimensions to the narrative. Time and space play central roles as symbols of power, domination, and transformation. The occupying military forces and religious sites symbolize identity, resistance, and control, shaping the characters’ destinies. The precise naming of characters and their psychological descriptions make the novel a valuable source for sociological analysis. The process of hypothesizing allows the author to compare realities with the ideals pursued by characters, thereby reflecting social concerns, political issues, and aspirations for a just society. Through hypothesizing, Daneshvar critiques the socio-political conditions of her time while depicting her characters’ hopes for a more equitable future. Suvashun ultimately serves as a socio-political critique of wartime conditions during World War II.
Mahsa Nazari Kalandaragh; Mohammadamir Jalali; Yidan Wang
Abstract
In the fourth volume of Hafez-e Abru’s Majmaʿ al-tawarikh, titled Zobdat al-tawarikh-e Baysonghori, under the events of the year 825 AH, a journey is mentioned that the ambassadors of Shahrokh Timur’s court took to the land of Khitai and the city of Khanbaliq. One of them was Khwajah Ghiyath ...
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In the fourth volume of Hafez-e Abru’s Majmaʿ al-tawarikh, titled Zobdat al-tawarikh-e Baysonghori, under the events of the year 825 AH, a journey is mentioned that the ambassadors of Shahrokh Timur’s court took to the land of Khitai and the city of Khanbaliq. One of them was Khwajah Ghiyath al-Din Naqqash, the ambassador of Baysonghor Mirza Timuri, the ruler of Herat, whose travelogue’s “content and substance” Hafez-e Abru has quoted in his history. Considering that this journey took place during the Timurid period—simultaneous with the Ming dynasty—and to “Khitai,” numerous Chinese words and terms have been used in it. Several corrections have been made to the text of Zobdat al-tawarikh, as well as to this travelogue, including the edition by Seyyed Kamal Haj Seyyed Javadi, which is the most important correction of this text in Iran and the reference point for researchers. However, in the correction of some Chinese words in this text, errors have occurred, which have been corrected in the present study by referring to the oldest manuscripts of this text, including the manuscript preserved in the Malek Library—copied in 830 AH, which the authors believe to be the “fair copy” and equivalent to the original version of this text, and which previous correctors did not properly utilize in their correction. This research addresses the errors of the previous correctors, resulting from the handwriting style of the manuscripts, syntactic errors in the Persian translation of Chinese terms, mentioning the Chinese form of the names of several cities mentioned in the travelogue that have a different form in Persian pronunciation, as well as the etymology and examination of the Chinese pronunciation of several words.
Introduction
One of the prominent historical works of the ninth Islamic century (Hijri) is Majmaʿ al-tawarikh. This book was authored by Abd Allah ibn Lotf Allah ibn Abd al-Rashid, known as Hafiz-e Abru. Hafiz-e Abru designated the fourth volume of his book as Zobdat al-tawarikh Baysonghori, which encompasses events from the year 736 to 830 AH. In the description of events and circumstances of the year 825 AH, he mentions a particular journey undertaken by envoys of the Timurid Shahrokh’s court to the land of Khitai and the city of Khanbaliq. The delegation consisted of 300 individuals, among whom was Khwajah Ghiayth al-Din Naqqash, the envoy of Baysonghor Mirza, the Timurid ruler of Herat. The author of Zobdat al-tawarikh cites a summarized and concise account of his travelogue within his work.
Research Questions and Hypotheses
Given that Khwajah Ghiayth al-Din Naqqash’s travelogue pertains to a journey to Khitai, what errors have occurred in the transcription of Chinese words in the most important editions of Hafez-e Abru’s Zobdat al-tawarikh?
The hypothesis of this research is that different kinds of errors have been introduced into the transcription of Chinese words in these editions. By examining ancient manuscripts of Zobdat al-tawarikh and re-evaluating this travelogue from the perspective of the Chinese language, it is possible to determine the correct transcription of these words.
Background of the Research
Contemporary studies on Khwajah Ghiayath al-Din Naqqash’s travelogue can generally be categorized into three groups: corrections, annotations, and translations. The first critical edition of this work was undertaken by Professor Mohammad Shafiʿ in 1930 in Lahore, Pakistan. Among Iranian scholars, Ali Mazaheri was the first to publish the book Jaddeh-e Abrisham in French, in Paris. Seyyed Kamal Haj Seyyed Javadi also edited and published Zobdat al-tawarikh based on several manuscript copies; however, the text of the travelogue in his edition contains errors both in the editing approach and in the transcription, especially concerning Chinese words.
Research Methodology
This study is based on a systematic comparison and review of the oldest manuscripts of Zobdat al-tawarikh and a re-examination of the printed editions of the travelogue, with particular focus on the Chinese vocabulary within the text.
Discussion and Analysis
Within the text of Khwajah Ghiayth al-Din’s travelogue, as presented in Zobdat al-tawarikh—including the edition by Haj Seyyed Javadi and the original manuscripts—numerous errors are evident, both in the transcription methodology and in the recording of Chinese words.
Conclusion
Some of the errors in the transcription of Chinese words in Khwajah Ghiayth al-Din’s travelogue stem from the orthographic characteristics of the manuscript copies, while others result from issues related to manuscript punctuation and the typesetter’s copy errors. Since the Malik manuscript is a copy in Hafez-e Abru’s own hand, it is likely that some of these transcriptions reflect orthographic changes and phonetic transformations of Chinese words within the Persian language over time, which Hafez-e Abru may have recorded as they appeared.
As previously noted, the correct transcription of “سامکونی” (as in Seyyed Javadi’s edition of Zobdat al-tawarikh) is “Shākkūnī,” derived from the Sanskrit term (शाक्यमुनि), a title for the Buddha. In Chinese, this is rendered as “Shijiāmóuní” (释迦牟尼) or “Shijiāmóuní Fó” (释迦牟尼佛). The main reason for the error in Seyyed Javadi’s edition and subsequently in Fatehi’s edition is the unjustified deviation from the Malik manuscripts and the error’s adoption from Fatehi’s manuscript. Furthermore, the transcription “شبچراغ” in Seyyed Javadi’s edition is incorrect; the correct term is “شبِ چراغ” which refers to the Lantern Festival (灯节 Dengjie), a traditional Chinese celebration. The names of the cities “سکجو” and “قمجو” (which should be read as سُکجو and قَمجو, respectively) are ancient names of “Suzhou” (苏州) and “Ganzhou” (赣州). The Chinese origin of the word “کیدیفو” is 急递铺 (jidipu), meaning “Express Postal Station.” The correct transcription of “جینو” and “بافو” should be “چیفو” (车夫) — meaning coachman — and “مافو” (马夫) — meaning horse groom or stable master. Similarly, “لوفو” (骡夫) refers to a muleteer. The correct term for the “بینه” (“بینۀ ختایی”) in Seyyed Javadi’s edition is “پیپَه” (琵琶), the traditional stringed instrument, not “Pipa” as a type of mouth organ, which Seyyed Javadi and Mazaheri mistakenly identified. Additionally, “داجی” appearing in the text (Hafez Abrū, 1380: 821) likely should be “داجین” (大人
Daren), meaning an esteemed person. Words such as “قَلَغی” (Turkish; a type of silk fabric), “تُرقو” (Turko-Mongolian; a type of red silk), “لو” (罗; a silk fabric), “شا” (纱; a very fine non-silk textile, generally cotton or linen), “لِنگ” (绫; a traditional Chinese silk fabric with a diagonal pattern), and “کَبکی” (a type of velvet fabric) refer to various Chinese textiles, as indicated.
Malihe Anooshe; Zahra Abolhassani chime; Foad Moloudi; Fatemeh Seyed Ebrahimi
Abstract
A masterpiece of ancient Persian literature, Ferdawsi’s Shahnamah functions both as an epic poem and a profound reflection of Iranian customs and rich cultural values. Through strategic narrative positioning, Ferdawsi embeds elevated human values within tales of heroism and conflict. This ...
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A masterpiece of ancient Persian literature, Ferdawsi’s Shahnamah functions both as an epic poem and a profound reflection of Iranian customs and rich cultural values. Through strategic narrative positioning, Ferdawsi embeds elevated human values within tales of heroism and conflict. This study examines the conceptualization of apology as a cultural value and marker of respect among characters through descriptive-analytical methods. Employing cultural linguistics and the analytical framework of cultural schemas, the research analyzes verbal (e.g., “offering apologies,” “uttering praise,” “extolling”) and non-verbal (e.g., “praying,” “sending gifts,” “rising respectfully”) apology acts. Findings indicate that verbal apologies predominate in top-down social contexts, whereas non-verbal apologies characterize bottom-up interactions, revealing complex sociolinguistic dynamics. IntroductionFerdawsi’s Shahnamah occupies a central position in Persian literature and Iranian national identity, embodying core cultural values beyond its epic narratives. This study investigates apology as a key mechanism for social identity formation and cultural cohesion. The primary research question asks: How is apology culturally and linguistically conceptualized and enacted in the Shahnamah? Through Sharifian’s cultural linguistics framework—which treats language as a manifestation of collective cognition and values—the analysis deciphers apology’s encoding and pragmatic realization in the text. Background of the ResearchExisting scholarship has examined language, culture, and cultural conceptualization in the Shahnamah through multiple lenses. Seraj (2024) analyzed apology speech acts in five selected discourses using Hasan’s textual structure model, while Rezaei et al. (2024) applied Brown and Levinson’s politeness theory to reveal status-based linguistic variations. Foundational works like Collected Papers on Persian Linguistics in Cultural Contexts (Sharifian & Korangi, 2021) and Advances in Cultural Linguistics (Sharifian, 2017) explore cross-cultural concepts. Iranian scholars (Achak & Narouei, 2023) have documented the epic’s linguistic architecture, while Khanlou et al. (2016) examined its role in shaping millennial Iranian identity. However, no study has systematically investigated apology through cultural linguistics—a gap this research addresses. MethodologyThis descriptive-analytical study examines the complete Shahnamah (Khaleghi-Motlagh edition, ~50,000 verses) using library-based methods. Data were extracted through cultural pragmatic schema analysis, with each speech event coded for: conceptual content, verbal/non-verbal classification, and interlocutors’ organizational relationships. Findings were systematically tabulated for comparative analysis. DiscussionThe analysis applies cultural schemas as key tools for understanding linguistic diversity and culture-specific meaning construction. Since they are rooted in specific cultural contexts, their interpretations vary across languages. These schemas are essential for understanding pragmatic meaning and rely on shared conceptual frameworks among speakers. These schemas organize pragmatic elements (speech acts, pragmemes, practs) into Sharifian’s “pragmatic sets”—hierarchical structures demonstrating how multiple linguistic forms express culturally embedded meanings. ConclusionThe study reveals two primary apology modalities in the Shahnamah:Verbal acts: “Bringing excuses,” “offering praise,” “extolling” (top-down contexts)Non-verbal acts: “Sending treasures,” “rising respectfully,” “performing prayers” (bottom-up contexts)Age and social status significantly influence performance: older, higher-status individuals employ verbal apologies to reinforce authority, while younger, lower-status actors use symbolic non-verbal forms constrained by power dynamics. This dual system reflects sophisticated cultural etiquette for maintaining social order and moral integrity. The Shahnamah emerges as a vital text where apology modalities intersect with identity construction. Cultural linguistics illuminates how Ferdawsi’s language both mirrors and shapes sociomoral frameworks, demonstrating literature’s role in cultural transmission.
mothahareh rezaei charati; farzad baloo; siavash haghjou; Ghodsieh Rezvanian
Abstract
Contemporary fiction often employs diverse linguistic styles, with some adopting a poetic prose that verges on poetry through its aesthetic and imaginative qualities. Writers utilizing this technique employ rhetorical and linguistic devices to approximate poetic language. Khayr al-nesa, ...
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Contemporary fiction often employs diverse linguistic styles, with some adopting a poetic prose that verges on poetry through its aesthetic and imaginative qualities. Writers utilizing this technique employ rhetorical and linguistic devices to approximate poetic language. Khayr al-nesa, a novel by Qasem Hasheminejad, exemplifies this style in Persian literature. This phenomenon extends beyond Persian letters, manifesting in works by Western authors like James Joyce and Virginia Woolf. This study employs a descriptive-analytical approach to examine the novel’s poetic elements through the dual lens of rhetorical poetic prose (emphasizing figurative language and linguistic musicality) and lyrical poetic prose (focusing on subjective narration and emotional resonance). Findings reveal that while Hasheminejad integrates both dimensions, rhetorical elements—figurative devices (metonymy, simile, metaphor, allusion), verbal embellishments (parallelism, paronomasia, alliteration), and semantic techniques (association, synesthesia)—dominate. These features, coupled with a nonlinear temporal structure and multisensory descriptions, elevate the narrative into a lyrical experience. The novel’s synthesis of mystical themes and stylistic innovation aligns with Mehran Oshrieh’s theoretical framework, positioning Khayr al-nesa as a seminal work in Persian poetic prose.
Introduction
The boundary between prose and poetry blurs in narratives employing poetic prose, a style characterized by linguistic ornamentation and affective depth. Qasem Hasheminejad’s Khayr al-nesa (2010) exemplifies this tradition, akin to Western works by Joyce and Woolf. This study analyzes its poetic devices through Oshrieh’s (2015) taxonomy of rhetorical (form-driven) and lyrical (emotion-driven) poetic prose, addressing a gap in scholarship on Hasheminejad’s stylistic innovation.
Background of the Research
Prior research on Khayr al-nesa has focused on narrative structure (Qasemi & Bani-Ardalan, 2021) or linguistic stylistics (Ramezanpour, 2021), but none systematically examine its poetic prose. Parallel studies on Golestan (Tayefi & Pourshabanan, 2010) and Najdi (Beiglari, 2020) contextualize this stylistic trend in Persian fiction.
Methodology
Guided by Oshrieh’s framework, this study adopts a descriptive-analytical approach to dissect:
Rhetorical poetic prose: Figurative language and phonological patterns. It maintains linear causality despite rhetorical ambiguity
Lyrical poetic prose: The narrative elements (setting, tone, characterization) reflect subjective perception, and external objects become vessels for internal emotions
Analysis
The magical realist novel Khayr al-nesa chronicles a Mazandarani woman who gains miraculous healing powers after a mystical encounter, yet cannot heal her own family. These powers—bestowed and later reclaimed by a mysterious boy—frame the narrative.
Analysis of Rhetorical Poetic Prose Figurative Devices: The author extensively employs rhetorical figures. Metonymy creates layered meanings, similes craft multisensory imagery that poeticizes mundane actions, light-based metaphors visualize mystical concepts like cosmic awareness, and innuendo achieves concision while deepening semantic resonance.
Ornamental Devices: The text’s musicality is enhanced through:
Phonetic devices: Parallelism (particularly in verbs) establishes rhythmic flow, paronomasia enriches textual beauty through wordplay, and alliteration strengthens acoustic texture.
Semantic devices: Symmetry (often anatomical) enhances textual cohesion, synesthesia generates innovative imagery through sensory fusion, and deliberate ambiguity invites active reader engagement and aesthetic pleasure.
Analysis of Lyrical Poetic Prose Chronotope: Time assumes a mythic, cyclical quality that disrupts linear chronology, evoking timelessness. Space manifests dually as concrete (northern forests) and abstract (spiritual journey to Karbala), achieving trans-spatial dimensions.
Descriptions and Characterization:
Multisensory descriptions create a vivid mystical atmosphere
Characterization employs both direct and indirect methods, with the moral dichotomy between purity (Khayr al-nesa) and corruption (envious, deceitful characters) conveying ethical messages
Plot Structure: The narrative follows a cohesive three-act structure that blends fantastical elements with sociohistorical realities, building compelling suspense. The revelation that Khayr al-nesa is the narrator’s grandmother ultimately forges profound connections between author, narrative, and reader.
Conclusion
Qasem Hasheminejad has masterfully synthesized rhetorical and lyrical poetic prose to create a multilayered, innovative work. Through complex literary devices, he renders profound mystical and mythic concepts within a symbolic narrative framework. The lyrical dimension, employing mythic temporality and multisensory descriptions, elevates the narrative to a poetic experience. Analysis reveals the rhetorical dimension predominates over the lyrical in this novel. Ultimately, Khayr al-nesa stands as a brilliant practical application of Mehran Oshrieh’s theoretical framework in long-form fiction. Hasheminejad’s synthesis of rhetorical ornamentation and lyrical subjectivity redefines Persian magical realism. While rhetorical devices dominate, their interplay with lyrical elements—particularly in mythicizing Mazandarani folklore—creates a uniquely immersive narrative. This study underscores Khayr al-nesa’s contribution to theorizing poetic prose in long-form fiction.
afsaneh tajik ghaleh khajeh; masoomeh khodadadimahabad; alireza gojezade
Abstract
Abstract
While rooted in mystical tradition, the poetry of ʿAttar Nayshaburi abounds with socially marked lexicon—words carrying specific semantic loads and connotations that reveal underlying social values, attitudes, and ideologies. These lexemes, embodying expressive, relational, and experiential values, ...
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Abstract
While rooted in mystical tradition, the poetry of ʿAttar Nayshaburi abounds with socially marked lexicon—words carrying specific semantic loads and connotations that reveal underlying social values, attitudes, and ideologies. These lexemes, embodying expressive, relational, and experiential values, directly and indirectly shape the interpretation of themes, simultaneously reflecting and reinforcing social norms. In Manteq al-tayr [The Conference of the Birds], ʿAttar employs rhetorical devices—allegory, metaphor, and especially symbolism—within nested narratives and dialogues to critique human and social relations through mystical and philosophical lenses. This descriptive-analytical study, contextualized within ʿAttar’s socio-historical milieu, applies Fairclough’s Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) framework to examine socially marked lexicon in Manteq al-tayr. It explores the interplay between language and social structures, focusing on how key lexemes and social signs mirror values, norms, and power dynamics within pivotal institutions (politics, Sufism, and religious orthodoxy). Findings demonstrate that these lexemes not only depict ʿAttar’s society but also deepen our understanding of his philosophical and mystical thought, offering a valuable resource for linguistic, literary, and sociological studies of Persian literature’s socio-cultural dimensions.
Introduction
Manteq al-tayr, a masterpiece of Persian literature, uses allegory and linguistic symbolism to interrogate social and mystical themes. This study analyzes its socially marked lexicon through Fairclough’s CDA model (description, interpretation, explanation), revealing how language encodes historical power structures. This framework enables the analysis of the relationship between language and social structures during ʿAttar’s time, yielding a deeper understanding of how the social values and norms of that era are reflected in Manteq al-tayr. The analysis of marked social lexicon serves as a powerful tool for deciphering the intricate connections between language, power, and society. Given that every discourse is fundamentally a collection of lexical choices, word selection is of paramount importance in critical discourse analysis. By examining semantic connotations, norm production, power dynamics, and cultural shifts, researchers can gain profound insights into how discourses are formed and transformed across different societies. Accordingly, this paper analyzes key terms and social markers in Manteq al-tayr, aiming to illuminate new dimensions of the work.
Research questions
The study addresses the following research questions:
Within the framework of critical discourse analysis, what values and significations do marked social lexicon in Manteq al-tayr carry?
Which power structures and social institutions does ʿAttar critically challenge in Manteq al-tayr?
Background of the Research
Numerous studies have been conducted on ʿAttar’s poetry; however, given that the examination of literary subjects through the lens of linguistics and discourse analysis is a relatively recent development—and with emphasis on the fact that no similar research has been conducted on another mystical work—the present study appears to be unprecedented in the field of critical discourse analysis of marked social lexicon in ʿAttar’s Mantiq al-tayr. In this regard, the research is both innovative and original.
For instance:
Ardeshirzadeh’s (2018) dissertation, titled “Real and Symbolic Characters and Proper Nouns in ʿAttar Nayshaburi’s Manteq al-tayr,” examines the characters in ʿAttar’s work and their literal or symbolic roles in the book’s narratives.
Farrokhnia and Heydari (2011), in their article “Thresholds of Social Connection and Disconnection in ʿAttar Nayshaburi’s Manteq al-tayr,” analyze the discourse of the birds and their characteristics in Manteq al-tayr, deciphering the allegorical codes within the text.
Methodology
This study employs a descriptive-analytical approach utilizing Fairclough’s model of critical discourse analysis (CDA). For data collection, textual analysis methodology was applied through the following procedure: A close reading of Manteq al-tayr was conducted to identify recurrent instances of marked social lexicon; the identified lexicon were systematically classified into thematic categories, including: living environment and socio-historical conditions of the poet’s era, cultural and political contexts, social stratification, human relations and interactions; data analysis followed Fairclough’s three-dimensional CDA model: systematic detection of marked lexicon; semantic analysis; discursive interpretation; and analysis of the results.
Discussion and Analysis
This study examines socially marked lexicon in ʿAttar Nayshaburi’s Manteq al-tayr, employing Fairclough’s critical discourse analysis (CDA) framework to analyze the text’s language across three levels: description, interpretation, and explanation.
Description: At this primary level, the study identifies and extracts key lexicon and phrases bearing social significance within the text. These lexical items—characterized by their ideological, cultural, and social connotations in Manteq al-tayr—are systematically cataloged. The analysis focuses exclusively on linguistic and structural features, deliberately suspending deeper semantic investigation.
Interpretation: The second analytical tier explores the connotative meanings and textual relationships of these marked lexicon. Socially marked lexicon is examined within ʿAttar’s historical and cultural milieu to demonstrate how these lexical choices reflect contemporaneous attitudes, value systems, and power dynamics. This interpretive stage elucidates the mechanisms of ideological transmission through linguistic means.
Explanation: The final stage investigates the sociolinguistic motivations behind these lexical selections and their role in either reinforcing or challenging dominant power structures. Fairclough’s CDA framework conceptualizes language here as both an instrument and a site of socio-ideological negotiation—capable of either perpetuating or subverting established norms. Through this tripartite analysis, Manteq al-tayr emerges not merely as a literary artifact, but as a discursive arena where ʿAttar’s critical engagement with his social reality is linguistically encoded.
The findings demonstrate that the language of Manteq al-tayr transcends its literary function, embodying complex sociopolitical dimensions that Fairclough’s three-tiered model effectively uncovers.
Conclusion
The analysis of socially marked lexicon in ʿAttar’s Manteq al-tayr, employing Fairclough’s discourse analysis model, reveals that the work conveys profound socio-cultural messages not only linguistically but also symbolically. The lexical choices in this mystical masterpiece serve a dual function: while transmitting Sufi concepts, they simultaneously reflect the prevailing social attitudes and structures of ʿAttar’s era. Through Fairclough’s framework, we have identified three key discursive elements embedded in the text: Power relations, ideological constructs, and social identity formation. These semantically charged terms play a pivotal role in shaping the work’s social discourse. This study demonstrates how critical discourse analysis can illuminate the complex interplay between language, culture, and society in pre-modern literary texts, offering methodological implications for analyzing other works of classical Persian literature.
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